commit facd7fabd833ac451add5e2af5ff1bce66599eef
Author: Lightbar contributors <lightbar@users.noreply.invalid>
Date:   Tue Sep 29 13:01:10 2026 +0200

    Initial Lightbar panel with native audio controls

diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
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index 0000000..0d0931d
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diff --git a/Cargo.toml b/Cargo.toml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b0df24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/Cargo.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+[package]
+name = "lightbar"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2024"
+rust-version = "1.93"
+description = "A small, event-driven native Wayland panel for Sway"
+license = "MIT"
+
+[dependencies]
+anyhow = "1.0"
+calloop = { version = "0.14", features = ["signals"] }
+chrono = { version = "0.4", default-features = false, features = ["clock"] }
+clap = { version = "4.5", features = ["derive"] }
+cosmic-text = "0.19"
+crossbeam-channel = "0.5"
+futures-lite = "2.6"
+libc = "0.2"
+notify = "8.2"
+serde = { version = "1.0", features = ["derive"] }
+serde_json = "1.0"
+smithay-client-toolkit = { version = "0.21", features = ["calloop"] }
+thiserror = "2.0"
+tiny-skia = "0.11"
+toml = "0.9"
+tracing = "0.1"
+tracing-subscriber = { version = "0.3", features = ["env-filter"] }
+wayland-client = "0.31"
+wayland-protocols = { version = "0.32", features = ["client"] }
+wayland-protocols-wlr = { version = "0.3", features = ["client"] }
+zbus = { version = "5.11", default-features = false, features = ["blocking-api", "tokio"] }
+tokio = { version = "1.47", features = ["rt", "sync", "time", "process", "io-util", "macros"] }
+
+[dev-dependencies]
+tempfile = "3.20"
+
+[profile.release]
+lto = "thin"
+codegen-units = 1
+strip = "debuginfo"
+
+[lints.rust]
+unsafe_code = "forbid"
+
+[lints.clippy]
+all = "warn"
+pedantic = "warn"
diff --git a/LICENSE b/LICENSE
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..be5bc61
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE
@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+MIT License
+
+Copyright (c) 2026 Lightbar contributors
+
+Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy
+of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal
+in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights
+to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell
+copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is
+furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions:
+
+The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all
+copies or substantial portions of the Software.
+
+THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR
+IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY,
+FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE
+AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER
+LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM,
+OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE
+SOFTWARE.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e90ad85
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,180 @@
+# Lightbar
+
+Lightbar is a small native Wayland panel for Sway. It draws directly into
+shared-memory layer-shell surfaces and updates only when module state changes or
+the compositor grants a frame. There is no GTK widget tree, CSS engine, browser,
+or free-running render loop.
+
+The initial target is Ubuntu 26.04 and Sway 1.11. The implementation checklist
+and the deliberately deferred stress tests are tracked in [TOOD.md](TOOD.md).
+
+## What works
+
+- one top or bottom bar on every selected output, with output-local workspaces;
+- left, centered, and right module groups with hover/click/scroll hit testing;
+- Sway workspaces, binding mode, scratchpad list and direct IPC actions;
+- exact-boundary clock and calendar popup;
+- NetworkManager, PipeWire audio, battery, backlight, and hwmon temperature;
+- default output and microphone selection, volume and mute controls, backlight
+  sliders, and external advanced settings launchers;
+- interval and streaming custom commands with limits, timeout, stale state, and
+  explicit shell opt-in;
+- StatusNotifier watcher/host, validated ARGB pixmaps, attention state,
+  activation, secondary activation, item context menus, and scrolling;
+- strict TOML validation and atomic config/theme hot reload;
+- `check-config` and `doctor` commands.
+
+Tray items that only publish an icon-theme name currently use a dot fallback.
+Pixmap icons are rendered directly. DBusMenu is also still delegated to the tray
+item through `ContextMenu`; native nested DBusMenu rendering is tracked in the
+checklist.
+
+## Build and try it
+
+Rust 1.93 or newer is required. On Ubuntu 26.04, install the normal Rust build
+toolchain and `pkg-config`; the Wayland and D-Bus protocol clients themselves are
+pure Rust.
+
+```sh
+cargo test --all-targets
+cargo run -- check-config --config examples/config.toml
+cargo run -- doctor --config examples/config.toml
+cargo run -- --config examples/config.toml
+```
+
+The example uses `UbuntuMono Nerd Font`. Install that font for the intended icon
+glyphs; cosmic-text/fontconfig will otherwise select an installed fallback such
+as Noto Sans.
+
+## Install without replacing Waybar
+
+```sh
+./scripts/install.sh
+```
+
+This builds a locked release, installs `~/.local/bin/lightbar`, and copies the
+example files only when the destination does not already exist. It also writes
+`~/.config/lightbar/bar.conf`, a generated Sway fragment containing the
+current user's absolute binary and configuration paths. It does not edit your
+Sway or Waybar configuration.
+
+Validate the installed configuration:
+
+```sh
+~/.local/bin/lightbar check-config
+~/.local/bin/lightbar doctor
+```
+
+Then remove or comment out your existing top-level `bar { ... }` block, add the
+portable include below at top level, and reload Sway:
+
+```text
+include ~/.config/lightbar/bar.conf
+```
+
+The included file is generated separately for each user, so a shared Sway
+configuration never contains a username or `/home/...` path. Absolute paths in
+that generated file also avoid depending on the graphical Sway session's
+`PATH`, which does not always include `~/.local/bin`. If `XDG_CONFIG_HOME` is
+customized, use the absolute `include` line printed by the installer instead.
+
+Sway appends `-b lightbar`; the CLI accepts that automatically. To roll back,
+remove the include, restore the old bar block, and reload. For a Waybar setup the
+bar block can contain:
+
+```text
+bar {
+    swaybar_command waybar
+}
+```
+
+Lightbar never edits or removes Waybar's files.
+
+## Configuration
+
+The configuration defaults to `$XDG_CONFIG_HOME/lightbar/config.toml` (or
+`~/.config/lightbar/config.toml`). `theme` is resolved relative to that file. Both
+files reject unknown fields, and an invalid live edit is logged while the last
+valid configuration remains active.
+
+Module actions live below `common.actions` and support four explicit types:
+
+```toml
+[modules.example]
+kind = "command"
+mode = "interval"       # or "stream"
+argv = ["date", "+%s"] # no shell interpretation
+interval = "30s"
+timeout = "2s"
+max_output_bytes = 65536
+
+[modules.example.common.actions.left]
+type = "exec"
+argv = ["notify-send", "clicked"]
+```
+
+Use `type = "shell"` only when shell expansion is intentional. Command output
+may be plain text or a JSON object:
+
+```json
+{"text":"42","tooltip":"answer","state":"warning","visible":true}
+```
+
+See [examples/config.toml](examples/config.toml) and
+[examples/theme.toml](examples/theme.toml) for every built-in used by the
+current layout.
+
+### Audio
+
+Audio requires PipeWire, WirePlumber (`wpctl`), and `pw-dump` on `PATH`.
+The bar shows the current default output and microphone independently. With
+the example actions, middle-click toggles mute and scrolling changes volume
+for the speaker or microphone segment under the pointer. Left-click opens
+the audio popup.
+
+Click a device name in the popup to choose a default output or microphone.
+Each default has its own volume slider and mute button. Click the slider or
+scroll over it to adjust volume between 0% and 150%; changing volume preserves
+mute state. External changes and device connections update the bar and open
+popup automatically. A missing default is shown as unavailable while the other
+endpoint remains usable. If the audio service disconnects, the popup closes
+and the module reconnects automatically.
+
+Use Tab/Shift+Tab or Up/Down to focus controls, Enter/Space to activate buttons,
+Left/Right to adjust a focused slider, Home/End for its limits, and Escape to
+close. Long device lists support scrolling and Previous/More buttons.
+
+`format` and `muted_format` configure the output segment;
+`microphone_format` and `microphone_muted_format` configure the microphone
+segment. All four accept `{volume}`, `{device}` (description), and `{name}`
+(PipeWire node name). Existing output formats remain valid. The complete
+[example configuration](examples/config.toml) includes both microphone formats.
+
+The popup's **Open pavucontrol** button provides per-application routing and
+device profile controls when `pavucontrol` is installed. Default-device
+selection uses [WirePlumber's `set-default` command](https://pipewire.pages.freedesktop.org/wireplumber/man/wpctl.html#set-default);
+routing of existing streams follows the session manager's policy.
+
+## CPU and memory comparison
+
+Build release binaries, run one bar configuration at a time, and sample the
+process for at least ten minutes:
+
+```sh
+./scripts/sample-process.sh $(pgrep -n lightbar) 600 > lightbar-core.tsv
+./scripts/sample-process.sh $(pgrep -n waybar) 600 > waybar.tsv
+```
+
+Repeat with the tray removed from each layout, then interact with workspaces,
+audio, popups, and tray items. Compare the samples and inspect whether RSS or
+CPU trends upward. An eight-hour soak and event-storm testing remain release
+gates in `TOOD.md`; a short local sample is not evidence that those gates pass.
+
+## Design guardrails
+
+- Module events are dirty-compared before drawing.
+- Frame callbacks prevent drawing faster than the compositor.
+- D-Bus tray signal queues, process output, IPC replies, and pixmaps are bounded.
+- Module workers back off or wait on events; low-frequency hardware values use
+  sparse polling.
+- Dropping a configuration generation stops its workers and monitored children.
diff --git a/TOOD.md b/TOOD.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aab67f8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/TOOD.md
@@ -0,0 +1,136 @@
+# Lightbar implementation checklist
+
+This file tracks the implementation of the agreed native, low-CPU Sway panel.
+The first target is Ubuntu 26.04 with Sway 1.11. The core bar ships before the
+StatusNotifier tray.
+
+## 1. Project and configuration
+
+- [ ] Rename the project and source folder to Lightbar, migrate the installed
+      configuration, and verify the running build and tests.
+- [ ] Initialize Git and push the reviewed source to the Lightbar repository;
+      verify that the remote branch matches the local commit.
+- [x] Rename the package, executable, configuration, documentation, and source
+      folder to Lightbar; migrate the installation and verify the running build.
+- [x] Create a locked Rust application named `lightbar`.
+- [x] Add CLI support for Sway's `-b <bar-id>`, `--config`, `check-config`,
+      `doctor`, and `--version`.
+- [x] Define strict, documented TOML models for the bar, layout, modules,
+      actions, custom commands, and theme.
+- [x] Load `$XDG_CONFIG_HOME/lightbar/config.toml` and its relative theme file.
+- [x] Validate module references, colors, dimensions, durations, formats, and
+      command limits before starting the UI.
+- [x] Watch configuration and theme files; reload atomically and keep the last
+      valid state after an invalid edit.
+- [x] Filter and coalesce configuration filesystem events so reads and unrelated
+      files cannot trigger reload loops.
+- [ ] Add rate-limited structured logging and useful exit codes.
+- [x] Add `doctor` checks for configuration, fonts, Sway/Wayland environment,
+      D-Bus services, hardware, and optional helper applications.
+
+## 2. Native Wayland shell and rendering
+
+- [x] Connect through `WAYLAND_SOCKET` when Sway launches the bar and through
+      the normal Wayland environment during development.
+- [x] Create a top layer-shell surface with a 24 logical-pixel exclusive zone
+      for every active output.
+- [ ] Handle output creation/removal, integer and fractional scaling, surface
+      configure events, and graceful compositor shutdown.
+- [x] Implement reusable shared-memory buffers and compositor-frame-throttled
+      drawing without a free-running render loop.
+- [x] Render backgrounds, borders, state colors, and shaped system-font text.
+- [x] Implement left/center/right layout, width measurement, clipping, and
+      stable pointer hit boxes.
+- [x] Handle hover, left/middle/right click, scrolling, and keyboard focus only
+      while a popup needs it.
+- [x] Implement one clamped `xdg_popup` per seat with dismissal, buttons,
+      sliders, scrolling, and calendar/menu layouts.
+
+## 3. Core data model and modules
+
+- [x] Define a common module state/event/action interface with dirty-state
+      comparison so unchanged data cannot trigger redraws.
+- [ ] Use bounded latest-value channels and coalesce bursts into one frame.
+- [x] Implement Sway IPC framing, initialization, persistent request and event
+      connections, commands, output-local workspaces, binding mode, and
+      scratchpad discovery.
+- [x] Preserve the last workspace list and focused selection across recoverable
+      Sway IPC disconnects instead of replacing it with an empty snapshot.
+- [x] Implement a navigable scratchpad window popover and reveal/move actions.
+- [x] Implement an exact-boundary clock and navigable calendar popover.
+- [ ] Implement NetworkManager status and detail through D-Bus, with an
+      `nm-connection-editor` launcher for advanced management.
+- [ ] Implement UPower battery status and detail through D-Bus.
+- [x] Implement PulseAudio/PipeWire-Pulse volume events, mute/volume controls,
+      and a `pavucontrol` launcher.
+- [x] Extend audio with current default output and microphone names, independent
+      volume/mute controls, and default-device selection in the popup.
+- [x] Verify audio event synchronization, missing/disconnected devices, control
+      routing, and popup keyboard interaction with regression tests.
+      Verified with 37 automated tests, a read-only comparison with live
+      PipeWire/WirePlumber, and an isolated Sway session using simulated devices.
+- [x] Install the updated audio build, validate the installed configuration,
+      and verify that the running bar uses the installed binary.
+- [x] Implement sysfs/logind backlight discovery and adjustment.
+- [x] Implement configurable `hwmon` temperature discovery and sparse polling.
+- [x] Auto-detect current hardware names while retaining explicit overrides.
+- [x] Hide or mark an unavailable optional module without crashing the bar.
+
+## 4. Custom command modules
+
+- [x] Support interval commands and long-running newline streams.
+- [x] Accept plain text or JSON objects containing `text`, `tooltip`, `state`,
+      and `visible`.
+- [x] Enforce argument-array execution by default, explicit shell opt-in,
+      two-second default timeouts, 64 KiB limits, and child cleanup.
+- [x] Preserve the last good value as stale after transient failures and use
+      bounded exponential restart backoff.
+- [x] Interrupt and reap monitored children during reload without holding child
+      locks across blocking waits.
+- [x] Support typed built-in, Sway, executable, and explicit-shell actions for
+      clicks and scroll directions.
+
+## 5. StatusNotifier tray (second milestone)
+
+- [x] Reuse an existing `org.kde.StatusNotifierWatcher`, or own and implement
+      it when no watcher exists.
+- [x] Register a StatusNotifierHost and track item registration, property
+      changes, and duplicate notifications.
+- [x] Remove owned-watcher registrations immediately when their D-Bus name
+      disappears, and never render ownerless or unreadable items as fallback
+      circles.
+- [x] Validate and render item-provided ARGB pixmaps.
+- [ ] Resolve icon-name-only items from installed XDG icon themes; do not bundle
+      a vector icon set.
+- [x] Implement activation, secondary activation, context menus, and scrolling.
+- [ ] Implement DBusMenu layout, updates, nested menus, separators, toggles,
+      enabled/visible state, and activation in native popups.
+- [ ] Reject malformed/oversized pixmaps, cap menu depth and item count,
+      isolate broken items, and rate-limit event floods.
+
+## 6. Tests, profiling, and rollout
+
+- [x] Unit-test config validation, duration/color parsing, format expansion,
+      hit testing, Sway frames/filtering, custom output, sysfs selection, and
+      hostile tray pixmaps.
+- [ ] Add focused tests for state transitions, retries, popup placement, output
+      scoping, and rendering cache eviction.
+- [ ] Test modules through fake Sway streams, D-Bus services, audio events,
+      sysfs trees, and hostile custom processes.
+- [ ] Add rendering snapshots for multiple scales, Unicode, missing glyphs,
+      urgent states, and narrow outputs.
+- [ ] Run end-to-end tests in a nested headless Sway session.
+- [ ] Add adversarial tray tests for malformed pixmaps/menus, duplicate items,
+      disappearing services, and signal floods.
+- [ ] Compare Waybar with/without tray against Lightbar core/with tray in repeated
+      idle and interaction runs.
+- [ ] Complete an eight-hour soak with flat memory and no sustained CPU spin
+      after disconnects, reloads, event storms, or malformed input.
+- [x] Provide a current-layout example using UbuntuMono Nerd Font, while
+      warning and falling back to Noto Sans when it is absent.
+- [x] Document development dependencies, release build, user installation,
+      Sway configuration, validation, profiling, and one-line Waybar rollback.
+- [x] Generate a per-user Sway include fragment so shared configurations do not
+      hardcode usernames or depend on the graphical session's `PATH`.
+- [ ] Install as `~/.local/bin/lightbar`, preserve the existing Waybar files, and
+      switch only `swaybar_command` after all release checks pass.
diff --git a/examples/config.toml b/examples/config.toml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..811bc4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/config.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
+version = 1
+theme = "theme.toml"
+
+[bar]
+position = "top"
+height = 24
+layer = "top"
+outputs = ["*"]
+namespace = "lightbar"
+popup_width = 320
+popup_max_height = 480
+
+[layout]
+left = ["workspaces", "scratchpad", "mode"]
+center = []
+right = ["network", "temperature", "backlight", "audio", "battery", "tray", "clock"]
+
+[modules.workspaces]
+kind = "workspaces"
+format = "{index}"
+
+[modules.scratchpad]
+kind = "scratchpad"
+format = "^{count}"
+empty_format = "^0"
+
+[modules.scratchpad.common.actions.left]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "toggle-popover"
+
+[modules.scratchpad.common.actions.right]
+type = "sway"
+command = "move scratchpad"
+
+[modules.mode]
+kind = "mode"
+format = "{mode}"
+
+[modules.network]
+kind = "network"
+format_connected = " {ssid}"
+format_disconnected = "睊 Disconnected"
+
+[modules.network.common.actions.left]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "toggle-popover"
+
+[modules.temperature]
+kind = "temperature"
+format = " {temperature_c:.0}°C"
+interval = "30s"
+warning_c = 75.0
+critical_c = 90.0
+
+[modules.temperature.common.actions.left]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "toggle-popover"
+
+[modules.backlight]
+kind = "backlight"
+format = " {percent}%"
+step_percent = 5
+
+[modules.backlight.common.actions.left]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "toggle-popover"
+
+[modules.backlight.common.actions.scroll_up]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "brightness-up"
+
+[modules.backlight.common.actions.scroll_down]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "brightness-down"
+
+[modules.audio]
+kind = "audio"
+format = " {volume}%"
+muted_format = "婢 Mute"
+microphone_format = " {volume}%"
+microphone_muted_format = " Mute"
+step_percent = 5
+
+[modules.audio.common.actions.left]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "toggle-popover"
+
+[modules.audio.common.actions.middle]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "toggle-mute"
+
+[modules.audio.common.actions.scroll_up]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "volume-up"
+
+[modules.audio.common.actions.scroll_down]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "volume-down"
+
+[modules.battery]
+kind = "battery"
+format = "{icon} {percent}%"
+full_format = " {percent}%"
+warning_percent = 20
+critical_percent = 10
+
+[modules.battery.common.actions.left]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "toggle-popover"
+
+[modules.clock]
+kind = "clock"
+format = "%a, %d. %b  %H:%M:%S"
+interval = "1s"
+
+[modules.tray]
+kind = "tray"
+icon_size = 16
+spacing = 8
+
+[modules.clock.common]
+style = { margin_x = 6 }
+
+[modules.clock.common.actions.left]
+type = "builtin"
+name = "toggle-popover"
diff --git a/examples/theme.toml b/examples/theme.toml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2dacd7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/examples/theme.toml
@@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
+[font]
+family = "UbuntuMono Nerd Font"
+fallbacks = ["Noto Sans", "Noto Color Emoji"]
+size = 12.0
+
+[bar]
+background = "#111111"
+border = "#00000000"
+border_width = 0
+padding = 0
+
+[popup]
+background = "#222222"
+border = "#555555"
+border_width = 1
+padding = 10
+
+[module]
+foreground = "#dddddd"
+background = "#00000000"
+border = "#00000000"
+border_width = 0
+padding_x = 10
+padding_y = 0
+margin_x = 0
+min_width = 1
+
+[states.focused]
+foreground = "#000000"
+background = "#7cafc2"
+border = "#dddddd"
+border_width = 1
+
+[states.active]
+foreground = "#dddddd"
+background = "#323232"
+border = "#555555"
+border_width = 1
+
+[states.urgent]
+foreground = "#222222"
+background = "#ab4642"
+border = "#ab4642"
+border_width = 1
+
+[states.warning]
+foreground = "#ffcc66"
+
+[states.critical]
+foreground = "#ff5555"
+
+[states.disconnected]
+foreground = "#ff5555"
+
+[states.hover]
+background = "#3b3b3b"
+
+[states.stale]
+foreground = "#888888"
+
+[modules.workspaces]
+padding_x = 6
+border = "#555555"
+border_width = 1
+
+[modules.scratchpad]
+foreground = "#b8b8b8"
+background = "#323232"
+padding_x = 9
+
+[modules.mode]
+foreground = "#ffffff"
+background = "#900000"
+border = "#2f343a"
+border_width = 1
+padding_x = 5
diff --git a/scripts/install.sh b/scripts/install.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..d3aa640
--- /dev/null
+++ b/scripts/install.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+set -euo pipefail
+
+project_dir=$(cd -- "$(dirname -- "${BASH_SOURCE[0]}")/.." && pwd)
+data_home=${XDG_DATA_HOME:-"${HOME}/.local/share"}
+config_home=${XDG_CONFIG_HOME:-"${HOME}/.config"}
+binary_dir=${HOME}/.local/bin
+bar_config=${config_home}/lightbar/bar.conf
+
+cargo build --locked --release --manifest-path "${project_dir}/Cargo.toml"
+install -Dm755 "${project_dir}/target/release/lightbar" "${binary_dir}/lightbar"
+
+install -d "${config_home}/lightbar"
+if [[ ! -e "${config_home}/lightbar/config.toml" ]]; then
+    install -m644 "${project_dir}/examples/config.toml" "${config_home}/lightbar/config.toml"
+fi
+if [[ ! -e "${config_home}/lightbar/theme.toml" ]]; then
+    install -m644 "${project_dir}/examples/theme.toml" "${config_home}/lightbar/theme.toml"
+fi
+
+# Sway may be started with a PATH that does not contain ~/.local/bin.  Keep the
+# path resolution out of the shared Sway config by generating this per-user
+# fragment with absolute paths at install time.
+bar_config_tmp=$(mktemp)
+trap 'rm -f "${bar_config_tmp}"' EXIT
+printf '%s\n' \
+    '# Generated by Lightbar. Re-run scripts/install.sh after moving the install.' \
+    'bar lightbar {' \
+    "    swaybar_command ${binary_dir}/lightbar --config ${config_home}/lightbar/config.toml" \
+    '}' > "${bar_config_tmp}"
+install -m644 "${bar_config_tmp}" "${bar_config}"
+rm -f "${bar_config_tmp}"
+trap - EXIT
+
+install -d "${data_home}/doc/lightbar"
+install -m644 "${project_dir}/README.md" "${data_home}/doc/lightbar/README.md"
+install -m644 "${project_dir}/TOOD.md" "${data_home}/doc/lightbar/TOOD.md"
+
+printf 'Installed %s\n' "${binary_dir}/lightbar"
+printf 'Configuration: %s\n' "${config_home}/lightbar/config.toml"
+printf 'Sway bar fragment: %s\n' "${bar_config}"
+printf 'Run: %s doctor\n' "${binary_dir}/lightbar"
+printf '\nAdd this at top level in your Sway config (and remove the old bar block):\n'
+if [[ "${config_home}" == "${HOME}/.config" ]]; then
+    printf '    include ~/.config/lightbar/bar.conf\n'
+else
+    printf '    include %s\n' "${bar_config}"
+fi
diff --git a/scripts/sample-process.sh b/scripts/sample-process.sh
new file mode 100755
index 0000000..2103ded
--- /dev/null
+++ b/scripts/sample-process.sh
@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+#!/usr/bin/env bash
+set -euo pipefail
+
+if [[ $# -lt 1 || $# -gt 2 || ! $1 =~ ^[0-9]+$ ]]; then
+    printf 'usage: %s PID [SECONDS]\n' "$0" >&2
+    exit 64
+fi
+
+sample_pid=$1
+duration=${2:-600}
+if [[ ! ${duration} =~ ^[0-9]+$ || ${duration} -lt 1 ]]; then
+    printf 'SECONDS must be a positive integer\n' >&2
+    exit 64
+fi
+if [[ ! -r "/proc/${sample_pid}/stat" ]]; then
+    printf 'PID %s is not readable\n' "${sample_pid}" >&2
+    exit 66
+fi
+
+printf 'elapsed_s\tcpu_percent\trss_kib\n'
+clock_ticks=$(getconf CLK_TCK)
+read_ticks() {
+    local stat_line stat_fields
+    IFS= read -r stat_line < "/proc/${sample_pid}/stat" || return 1
+    stat_fields=${stat_line##*) }
+    read -r -a stat_fields <<<"${stat_fields}"
+    printf '%s\n' "$((stat_fields[11] + stat_fields[12]))"
+}
+
+previous_ticks=$(read_ticks)
+for ((elapsed = 1; elapsed <= duration; elapsed++)); do
+    sleep 1
+    if [[ ! -r "/proc/${sample_pid}/stat" ]] || ! current_ticks=$(read_ticks); then
+        printf 'process %s exited after %s seconds\n' "${sample_pid}" "${elapsed}" >&2
+        exit 1
+    fi
+    delta_ticks=$((current_ticks - previous_ticks))
+    cpu=$(awk -v ticks="${delta_ticks}" -v hz="${clock_ticks}" \
+        'BEGIN { printf "%.2f", ticks * 100 / hz }')
+    rss=$(awk '/^VmRSS:/ { print $2; exit }' "/proc/${sample_pid}/status")
+    printf '%s\t%s\t%s\n' "${elapsed}" "${cpu}" "${rss}"
+    previous_ticks=${current_ticks}
+done
diff --git a/src/app.rs b/src/app.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f88db2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/app.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1770 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::BTreeSet,
+    num::NonZeroU32,
+    path::{Path, PathBuf},
+    process::Command,
+    sync::{
+        Arc, Mutex,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread,
+    time::Duration,
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, anyhow, bail};
+use calloop::{
+    EventLoop,
+    channel::{Event as ChannelEvent, Sender, channel},
+    signals::{Signal, Signals},
+};
+use notify::{RecommendedWatcher, RecursiveMode, Watcher};
+use smithay_client_toolkit::{
+    compositor::{CompositorHandler, CompositorState, FrameCallbackData},
+    delegate_registry,
+    output::{OutputHandler, OutputState},
+    registry::{ProvidesRegistryState, RegistryState},
+    registry_handlers,
+    seat::{
+        Capability, SeatHandler, SeatState,
+        keyboard::{KeyEvent, KeyboardHandler, Keysym, Modifiers, RawModifiers},
+        pointer::{
+            BTN_LEFT, BTN_MIDDLE, BTN_RIGHT, PointerEvent, PointerEventKind, PointerHandler,
+        },
+    },
+    shell::{
+        WaylandSurface,
+        wlr_layer::{
+            Anchor, KeyboardInteractivity, Layer as WlrLayer, LayerShell, LayerShellHandler,
+            LayerSurface, LayerSurfaceConfigure,
+        },
+        xdg::{
+            XdgPositioner, XdgShell,
+            popup::{Popup, PopupConfigure, PopupHandler},
+            window::{Window, WindowConfigure, WindowHandler},
+        },
+    },
+    shm::{
+        Shm, ShmHandler,
+        slot::{Buffer, SlotPool},
+    },
+};
+use wayland_client::{
+    Connection, QueueHandle,
+    globals::registry_queue_init,
+    protocol::{wl_keyboard, wl_output, wl_pointer, wl_seat, wl_shm, wl_surface},
+};
+use wayland_protocols::xdg::shell::client::xdg_positioner;
+
+use crate::{
+    config::{Action, BarConfig, BuiltinAction, ConfigBundle, Layer, ModuleConfig, Position},
+    model::{
+        AudioView, CalendarModel, Interaction, ModuleEvent, ModuleStore, PointerButton,
+        PopupContent, PopupModel, ScrollDirection,
+    },
+    modules::{
+        AudioAction, AudioTarget, ModuleRuntime, action_for_button, action_for_scroll,
+        activate_tray_item, execute_action, execute_builtin_for_module, run_sway_command,
+        scroll_tray_item,
+    },
+    render::{HitBox, Renderer, hit_test},
+};
+
+use smithay_client_toolkit::reexports::calloop_wayland_source::WaylandSource;
+
+const CONFIG_RELOAD_DEBOUNCE: Duration = Duration::from_millis(100);
+
+pub fn run(bundle: ConfigBundle, bar_id: Option<String>) -> Result<()> {
+    // Block handled signals before any module or watcher threads are spawned so
+    // every child thread inherits the mask and signalfd remains the sole
+    // receiver. Otherwise SIGHUP can land on a worker and terminate the process.
+    let signals = Signals::new(&[Signal::SIGINT, Signal::SIGTERM, Signal::SIGHUP])?;
+    let connection = Connection::connect_to_env().context("could not connect to Wayland")?;
+    let (globals, event_queue) =
+        registry_queue_init(&connection).context("could not initialize the Wayland registry")?;
+    let queue_handle = event_queue.handle();
+
+    let mut event_loop: EventLoop<'static, App> =
+        EventLoop::try_new().context("could not create the event loop")?;
+    WaylandSource::new(connection.clone(), event_queue)
+        .insert(event_loop.handle())
+        .context("could not register the Wayland event source")?;
+
+    let compositor =
+        CompositorState::bind(&globals, &queue_handle).context("wl_compositor is unavailable")?;
+    let layer_shell =
+        LayerShell::bind(&globals, &queue_handle).context("wlr-layer-shell is unavailable")?;
+    let xdg_shell = XdgShell::bind(&globals, &queue_handle).context("xdg-shell is unavailable")?;
+    let shm = Shm::bind(&globals, &queue_handle).context("wl_shm is unavailable")?;
+
+    let (module_sender, module_receiver) = channel();
+    let module_runtime = ModuleRuntime::start_with_sender(&bundle.config, module_sender.clone())?;
+    let (app_sender, app_receiver) = channel();
+    let config_watcher = ConfigWatcher::new(
+        [&bundle.config_path, &bundle.theme_path],
+        app_sender.clone(),
+    )?;
+
+    let mut app = App {
+        registry_state: RegistryState::new(&globals),
+        seat_state: SeatState::new(&globals, &queue_handle),
+        output_state: OutputState::new(&globals, &queue_handle),
+        compositor,
+        layer_shell,
+        xdg_shell,
+        shm,
+        bundle,
+        bar_id,
+        bars: Vec::new(),
+        popup: None,
+        modules: ModuleStore::default(),
+        module_sender,
+        module_runtime,
+        config_watcher,
+        renderer: Renderer::default(),
+        pointer: None,
+        keyboard: None,
+        seat: None,
+        exit: false,
+    };
+
+    let qh = queue_handle.clone();
+    event_loop
+        .handle()
+        .insert_source(module_receiver, move |event, _, app| {
+            if let ChannelEvent::Msg(event) = event {
+                app.handle_module_event(event, &qh);
+            }
+        })
+        .map_err(|error| anyhow!("could not register the module event source: {error}"))?;
+
+    let qh = queue_handle.clone();
+    event_loop
+        .handle()
+        .insert_source(app_receiver, move |event, _, app| {
+            if let ChannelEvent::Msg(AppEvent::ReloadRequested) = event {
+                app.config_watcher.reload_handled();
+                app.reload(&qh);
+            }
+        })
+        .map_err(|error| anyhow!("could not register the configuration event source: {error}"))?;
+
+    let qh = queue_handle.clone();
+    event_loop
+        .handle()
+        .insert_source(signals, move |event, _, app| match event.signal() {
+            Signal::SIGHUP => app.reload(&qh),
+            Signal::SIGINT | Signal::SIGTERM => app.exit = true,
+            _ => {}
+        })
+        .context("could not register signal handling")?;
+
+    tracing::info!(
+        bar_id = ?app.bar_id,
+        "starting native Wayland panel"
+    );
+    while !app.exit {
+        event_loop
+            .dispatch(None::<Duration>, &mut app)
+            .context("event-loop dispatch failed")?;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+struct App {
+    registry_state: RegistryState,
+    seat_state: SeatState,
+    output_state: OutputState,
+    compositor: CompositorState,
+    layer_shell: LayerShell,
+    xdg_shell: XdgShell,
+    shm: Shm,
+    bundle: ConfigBundle,
+    bar_id: Option<String>,
+    bars: Vec<BarSurface>,
+    popup: Option<ActivePopup>,
+    modules: ModuleStore,
+    module_sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    module_runtime: ModuleRuntime,
+    config_watcher: ConfigWatcher,
+    renderer: Renderer,
+    pointer: Option<wl_pointer::WlPointer>,
+    keyboard: Option<wl_keyboard::WlKeyboard>,
+    seat: Option<wl_seat::WlSeat>,
+    exit: bool,
+}
+
+struct BarSurface {
+    output: wl_output::WlOutput,
+    output_name: String,
+    layer: LayerSurface,
+    pool: SlotPool,
+    buffer: Option<Buffer>,
+    buffer_size: (u32, u32),
+    width: u32,
+    height: u32,
+    scale: u32,
+    configured: bool,
+    dirty: bool,
+    frame_pending: bool,
+    hit_boxes: Vec<HitBox>,
+    hovered: Option<(String, Option<String>)>,
+}
+
+struct ActivePopup {
+    popup: Popup,
+    module: String,
+    output_name: String,
+    model: PopupModel,
+    pool: SlotPool,
+    buffer: Option<Buffer>,
+    buffer_size: (u32, u32),
+    width: u32,
+    height: u32,
+    scale: u32,
+    configured: bool,
+    dirty: bool,
+    frame_pending: bool,
+    hit_boxes: Vec<HitBox>,
+    calendar_offset: i32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
+enum AppEvent {
+    ReloadRequested,
+}
+
+struct ConfigWatcher {
+    watcher: RecommendedWatcher,
+    directories: BTreeSet<PathBuf>,
+    files: Arc<Mutex<BTreeSet<PathBuf>>>,
+    reload_pending: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+}
+
+impl ConfigWatcher {
+    fn new<'a>(
+        paths: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a PathBuf>,
+        sender: Sender<AppEvent>,
+    ) -> Result<Self> {
+        let files = watched_files(paths);
+        let watched_files = Arc::new(Mutex::new(files.clone()));
+        let reload_pending = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let callback_files = Arc::clone(&watched_files);
+        let callback_pending = Arc::clone(&reload_pending);
+        let mut watcher =
+            notify::recommended_watcher(move |event: notify::Result<notify::Event>| match event {
+                Ok(event) => {
+                    let relevant = callback_files
+                        .lock()
+                        .is_ok_and(|files| event_requires_reload(&event, &files));
+                    if relevant {
+                        schedule_reload(&sender, &callback_pending);
+                    }
+                }
+                Err(error) => tracing::warn!(%error, "configuration watch failed"),
+            })?;
+        let directories = watched_directories(&files);
+        for directory in &directories {
+            watcher.watch(directory, RecursiveMode::NonRecursive)?;
+        }
+        Ok(Self {
+            watcher,
+            directories,
+            files: watched_files,
+            reload_pending,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn reset<'a>(&mut self, paths: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a PathBuf>) -> Result<()> {
+        let next_files = watched_files(paths);
+        let next_directories = watched_directories(&next_files);
+        for directory in self.directories.difference(&next_directories) {
+            self.watcher.unwatch(directory)?;
+        }
+        for directory in next_directories.difference(&self.directories) {
+            self.watcher.watch(directory, RecursiveMode::NonRecursive)?;
+        }
+        self.directories = next_directories;
+        *self
+            .files
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| anyhow!("configuration watch paths lock was poisoned"))? = next_files;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn reload_handled(&self) {
+        self.reload_pending.store(false, Ordering::Release);
+    }
+}
+
+fn watched_files<'a>(paths: impl IntoIterator<Item = &'a PathBuf>) -> BTreeSet<PathBuf> {
+    paths.into_iter().cloned().collect()
+}
+
+fn watched_directories(paths: &BTreeSet<PathBuf>) -> BTreeSet<PathBuf> {
+    paths
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|path| path.parent().map(Path::to_path_buf))
+        .collect()
+}
+
+fn event_requires_reload(event: &notify::Event, files: &BTreeSet<PathBuf>) -> bool {
+    use notify::event::{AccessKind, AccessMode, EventKind, MetadataKind, ModifyKind};
+
+    let is_mutation = match event.kind {
+        // Imprecise backends use Any/Other for changes they cannot classify.
+        EventKind::Access(AccessKind::Close(AccessMode::Write))
+        | EventKind::Any
+        | EventKind::Other => true,
+        EventKind::Access(_)
+        | EventKind::Modify(ModifyKind::Metadata(MetadataKind::AccessTime)) => false,
+        EventKind::Create(_) | EventKind::Modify(_) | EventKind::Remove(_) => true,
+    };
+    is_mutation && event.paths.iter().any(|path| files.contains(path))
+}
+
+fn schedule_reload(sender: &Sender<AppEvent>, pending: &Arc<AtomicBool>) {
+    if pending
+        .compare_exchange(false, true, Ordering::AcqRel, Ordering::Acquire)
+        .is_err()
+    {
+        return;
+    }
+    let sender = sender.clone();
+    let pending_for_thread = Arc::clone(pending);
+    if let Err(error) = thread::Builder::new()
+        .name("lightbar-config-debounce".to_owned())
+        .spawn(move || {
+            thread::sleep(CONFIG_RELOAD_DEBOUNCE);
+            if sender.send(AppEvent::ReloadRequested).is_err() {
+                pending_for_thread.store(false, Ordering::Release);
+            }
+        })
+    {
+        pending.store(false, Ordering::Release);
+        tracing::warn!(%error, "could not schedule configuration reload");
+    }
+}
+
+impl App {
+    fn reload(&mut self, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        let path = self.bundle.config_path.clone();
+        match ConfigBundle::load(Some(&path)) {
+            Ok(bundle) => {
+                let runtime = match ModuleRuntime::start_with_sender(
+                    &bundle.config,
+                    self.module_sender.clone(),
+                ) {
+                    Ok(runtime) => runtime,
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        tracing::error!(%error, "could not restart module workers; keeping old configuration");
+                        return;
+                    }
+                };
+                if let Err(error) = self
+                    .config_watcher
+                    .reset([&bundle.config_path, &bundle.theme_path])
+                {
+                    tracing::warn!(%error, "could not update configuration watches");
+                }
+                self.close_popup();
+                self.bundle = bundle;
+                self.module_runtime = runtime;
+                self.rebuild_bars(qh);
+                tracing::info!(config = %path.display(), "configuration reloaded");
+            }
+            Err(error) => {
+                tracing::error!(error = %format_args!("{error:#}"), "configuration reload rejected");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn handle_module_event(&mut self, event: ModuleEvent, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        let popup_model = event.snapshot.popup.clone();
+        let module = event.module.clone();
+        if !self.modules.update(event) {
+            return;
+        }
+        if self
+            .popup
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|popup| popup.module == module)
+            && popup_model.is_none()
+        {
+            self.close_popup();
+        }
+        if let Some(popup) = self.popup.as_mut().filter(|popup| popup.module == module)
+            && popup.calendar_offset == 0
+            && let Some(mut model) = popup_model
+        {
+            if let (PopupContent::Audio(old), PopupContent::Audio(new)) =
+                (&popup.model.content, &mut model.content)
+            {
+                new.view = old.view;
+                new.focused.clone_from(&old.focused);
+                new.offset = old.offset.min(new.controls().len().saturating_sub(1));
+            }
+            popup.model = model;
+            popup.dirty = true;
+        }
+        self.invalidate_all(qh);
+    }
+
+    fn rebuild_bars(&mut self, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        self.bars.clear();
+        let outputs: Vec<_> = self.output_state.outputs().collect();
+        for output in outputs {
+            self.sync_output(output, qh);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn sync_output(&mut self, output: wl_output::WlOutput, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        let Some(info) = self.output_state.info(&output) else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let name = info
+            .name
+            .clone()
+            .unwrap_or_else(|| format!("output-{}", info.id));
+        let enabled = self.bundle.config.bar.output_enabled(&name);
+        if let Some(index) = self.bars.iter().position(|bar| bar.output == output) {
+            if !enabled {
+                self.bars.remove(index);
+                return;
+            }
+            let scale = u32::try_from(info.scale_factor.max(1)).unwrap_or(1);
+            let bar = &mut self.bars[index];
+            bar.output_name = name;
+            if bar.scale != scale {
+                bar.scale = scale;
+                bar.layer
+                    .wl_surface()
+                    .set_buffer_scale(i32::try_from(scale).unwrap_or(i32::MAX));
+                bar.buffer = None;
+                bar.dirty = true;
+            }
+            self.invalidate(index, qh);
+            return;
+        }
+        if !enabled {
+            return;
+        }
+        match self.create_bar(output, name, info.scale_factor, qh) {
+            Ok(bar) => self.bars.push(bar),
+            Err(error) => tracing::error!(%error, "could not create bar surface"),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn create_bar(
+        &self,
+        output: wl_output::WlOutput,
+        output_name: String,
+        output_scale: i32,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+    ) -> Result<BarSurface> {
+        let surface = self.compositor.create_surface(qh);
+        let layer = self.layer_shell.create_layer_surface(
+            qh,
+            surface,
+            map_layer(self.bundle.config.bar.layer),
+            Some(self.bundle.config.bar.namespace.clone()),
+            Some(&output),
+        );
+        configure_layer(&layer, &self.bundle.config.bar);
+        let scale = u32::try_from(output_scale.max(1)).unwrap_or(1);
+        layer
+            .wl_surface()
+            .set_buffer_scale(i32::try_from(scale).unwrap_or(i32::MAX));
+        layer.commit();
+        let initial_width = 1920_u32.saturating_mul(scale);
+        let initial_height = self.bundle.config.bar.height.saturating_mul(scale);
+        let pool = SlotPool::new(
+            usize::try_from(initial_width)
+                .unwrap_or(usize::MAX)
+                .saturating_mul(initial_height as usize)
+                .saturating_mul(4),
+            &self.shm,
+        )?;
+        tracing::info!(output = %output_name, scale, "created bar surface");
+        Ok(BarSurface {
+            output,
+            output_name,
+            layer,
+            pool,
+            buffer: None,
+            buffer_size: (0, 0),
+            width: 0,
+            height: self.bundle.config.bar.height,
+            scale,
+            configured: false,
+            dirty: true,
+            frame_pending: false,
+            hit_boxes: Vec::new(),
+            hovered: None,
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn invalidate_all(&mut self, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        for index in 0..self.bars.len() {
+            self.bars[index].dirty = true;
+            self.invalidate(index, qh);
+        }
+        if let Some(popup) = &mut self.popup {
+            popup.dirty = true;
+            if popup.configured
+                && !popup.frame_pending
+                && let Err(error) = self.draw_popup(qh)
+            {
+                tracing::error!(%error, "popup draw failed");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn invalidate(&mut self, index: usize, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        if self
+            .bars
+            .get(index)
+            .is_some_and(|bar| bar.configured && !bar.frame_pending && bar.dirty)
+            && let Err(error) = self.draw_bar(index, qh)
+        {
+            tracing::error!(%error, "bar draw failed");
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn draw_bar(&mut self, index: usize, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) -> Result<()> {
+        let Self {
+            bars,
+            renderer,
+            bundle,
+            modules,
+            ..
+        } = self;
+        let bar = bars.get_mut(index).context("unknown bar surface")?;
+        let physical_width = bar.width.saturating_mul(bar.scale);
+        let physical_height = bar.height.saturating_mul(bar.scale);
+        validate_buffer_size(physical_width, physical_height)?;
+        if bar.buffer_size != (physical_width, physical_height) {
+            bar.buffer = None;
+            bar.buffer_size = (physical_width, physical_height);
+        }
+        let stride = i32::try_from(physical_width.saturating_mul(4))?;
+        let buffer = bar.buffer.get_or_insert_with(|| {
+            bar.pool
+                .create_buffer(
+                    i32::try_from(physical_width).expect("validated buffer width"),
+                    i32::try_from(physical_height).expect("validated buffer height"),
+                    stride,
+                    wl_shm::Format::Argb8888,
+                )
+                .expect("validated shared-memory buffer")
+                .0
+        });
+        let canvas = if let Some(canvas) = bar.pool.canvas(buffer) {
+            canvas
+        } else {
+            let (second_buffer, canvas) = bar.pool.create_buffer(
+                i32::try_from(physical_width)?,
+                i32::try_from(physical_height)?,
+                stride,
+                wl_shm::Format::Argb8888,
+            )?;
+            *buffer = second_buffer;
+            canvas
+        };
+        let result = renderer.render_bar(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            bar.scale,
+            &bar.output_name,
+            &bundle.config,
+            &bundle.theme,
+            modules,
+            bar.hovered
+                .as_ref()
+                .map(|(module, segment)| (module.as_str(), segment.as_deref())),
+        );
+        bar.hit_boxes = result.hit_boxes;
+        bar.layer.wl_surface().damage_buffer(
+            0,
+            0,
+            i32::try_from(physical_width)?,
+            i32::try_from(physical_height)?,
+        );
+        bar.layer
+            .wl_surface()
+            .frame(qh, FrameCallbackData(bar.layer.wl_surface().clone()));
+        bar.buffer
+            .as_ref()
+            .context("bar buffer disappeared")?
+            .attach_to(bar.layer.wl_surface())?;
+        bar.layer.commit();
+        bar.dirty = false;
+        bar.frame_pending = true;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn draw_popup(&mut self, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) -> Result<()> {
+        let Self {
+            popup,
+            renderer,
+            bundle,
+            ..
+        } = self;
+        let popup = popup.as_mut().context("no active popup")?;
+        let physical_width = popup.width.saturating_mul(popup.scale);
+        let physical_height = popup.height.saturating_mul(popup.scale);
+        validate_buffer_size(physical_width, physical_height)?;
+        if popup.buffer_size != (physical_width, physical_height) {
+            popup.buffer = None;
+            popup.buffer_size = (physical_width, physical_height);
+        }
+        let stride = i32::try_from(physical_width.saturating_mul(4))?;
+        let buffer = popup.buffer.get_or_insert_with(|| {
+            popup
+                .pool
+                .create_buffer(
+                    i32::try_from(physical_width).expect("validated buffer width"),
+                    i32::try_from(physical_height).expect("validated buffer height"),
+                    stride,
+                    wl_shm::Format::Argb8888,
+                )
+                .expect("validated shared-memory buffer")
+                .0
+        });
+        let canvas = if let Some(canvas) = popup.pool.canvas(buffer) {
+            canvas
+        } else {
+            let (second_buffer, canvas) = popup.pool.create_buffer(
+                i32::try_from(physical_width)?,
+                i32::try_from(physical_height)?,
+                stride,
+                wl_shm::Format::Argb8888,
+            )?;
+            *buffer = second_buffer;
+            canvas
+        };
+        let result = renderer.render_popup(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            popup.scale,
+            &popup.module,
+            &popup.model,
+            &bundle.theme,
+        );
+        popup.hit_boxes = result.hit_boxes;
+        popup.popup.wl_surface().damage_buffer(
+            0,
+            0,
+            i32::try_from(physical_width)?,
+            i32::try_from(physical_height)?,
+        );
+        popup
+            .popup
+            .wl_surface()
+            .frame(qh, FrameCallbackData(popup.popup.wl_surface().clone()));
+        popup
+            .buffer
+            .as_ref()
+            .context("popup buffer disappeared")?
+            .attach_to(popup.popup.wl_surface())?;
+        popup.popup.wl_surface().commit();
+        popup.dirty = false;
+        popup.frame_pending = true;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn open_popup(
+        &mut self,
+        bar_index: usize,
+        hit_box: &HitBox,
+        serial: u32,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+    ) -> Result<()> {
+        let model = self
+            .modules
+            .get(&hit_box.module)
+            .and_then(|snapshot| snapshot.popup.clone())
+            .context("module has no popup content")?;
+        self.close_popup();
+        let bar = self.bars.get(bar_index).context("unknown parent bar")?;
+        let (width, height) = Renderer::popup_logical_size(
+            &model,
+            self.bundle.config.bar.popup_width,
+            self.bundle.config.bar.popup_max_height,
+        );
+        let positioner = XdgPositioner::new(&self.xdg_shell)?;
+        positioner.set_size(i32::try_from(width)?, i32::try_from(height)?);
+        positioner.set_anchor_rect(
+            hit_box.rect.x.round() as i32,
+            hit_box.rect.y.round() as i32,
+            hit_box.rect.width.max(1.0).round() as i32,
+            hit_box.rect.height.max(1.0).round() as i32,
+        );
+        let right_side = hit_box.rect.x + hit_box.rect.width / 2.0 > f64::from(bar.width) / 2.0;
+        match (self.bundle.config.bar.position, right_side) {
+            (Position::Top, false) => {
+                positioner.set_anchor(xdg_positioner::Anchor::BottomLeft);
+                positioner.set_gravity(xdg_positioner::Gravity::BottomRight);
+            }
+            (Position::Top, true) => {
+                positioner.set_anchor(xdg_positioner::Anchor::BottomRight);
+                positioner.set_gravity(xdg_positioner::Gravity::BottomLeft);
+            }
+            (Position::Bottom, false) => {
+                positioner.set_anchor(xdg_positioner::Anchor::TopLeft);
+                positioner.set_gravity(xdg_positioner::Gravity::TopRight);
+            }
+            (Position::Bottom, true) => {
+                positioner.set_anchor(xdg_positioner::Anchor::TopRight);
+                positioner.set_gravity(xdg_positioner::Gravity::TopLeft);
+            }
+        }
+        positioner.set_constraint_adjustment(
+            xdg_positioner::ConstraintAdjustment::SlideX
+                | xdg_positioner::ConstraintAdjustment::FlipX
+                | xdg_positioner::ConstraintAdjustment::SlideY,
+        );
+        let surface = self.compositor.create_surface(qh);
+        surface.set_buffer_scale(i32::try_from(bar.scale).unwrap_or(i32::MAX));
+        let popup = Popup::from_surface(None, &positioner, qh, surface, &self.xdg_shell)?;
+        let physical_width = width.saturating_mul(bar.scale);
+        let physical_height = height.saturating_mul(bar.scale);
+        let pool = SlotPool::new(
+            (physical_width as usize)
+                .saturating_mul(physical_height as usize)
+                .saturating_mul(4),
+            &self.shm,
+        )?;
+        // Establish keyboard focus before the popup grab. Release it on dismissal.
+        bar.layer
+            .set_keyboard_interactivity(if matches!(model.content, PopupContent::Audio(_)) {
+                KeyboardInteractivity::Exclusive
+            } else {
+                KeyboardInteractivity::OnDemand
+            });
+        bar.layer.commit();
+        bar.layer.get_popup(popup.xdg_popup());
+        if let Some(seat) = &self.seat {
+            popup.xdg_popup().grab(seat, serial);
+        }
+        popup.wl_surface().commit();
+
+        self.popup = Some(ActivePopup {
+            popup,
+            module: hit_box.module.clone(),
+            output_name: bar.output_name.clone(),
+            model,
+            pool,
+            buffer: None,
+            buffer_size: (0, 0),
+            width,
+            height,
+            scale: bar.scale,
+            configured: false,
+            dirty: true,
+            frame_pending: false,
+            hit_boxes: Vec::new(),
+            calendar_offset: 0,
+        });
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn close_popup(&mut self) {
+        let Some(popup) = self.popup.take() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        if let Some(bar) = self
+            .bars
+            .iter()
+            .find(|bar| bar.output_name == popup.output_name)
+        {
+            bar.layer
+                .set_keyboard_interactivity(KeyboardInteractivity::None);
+            bar.layer.commit();
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn handle_bar_interaction(
+        &mut self,
+        bar_index: usize,
+        hit_box: HitBox,
+        interaction: Interaction,
+        serial: Option<u32>,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+    ) {
+        let Some(module) = self.bundle.config.modules.get(&hit_box.module) else {
+            return;
+        };
+        if matches!(module, ModuleConfig::Workspaces(_))
+            && let Interaction::Click {
+                button: PointerButton::Left,
+                segment: Some(ref workspace),
+                ..
+            } = interaction
+        {
+            let command = format!("workspace {}", quote_sway_arg(workspace));
+            if let Err(error) = run_sway_command(&command) {
+                tracing::warn!(%error, "workspace switch failed");
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+        if matches!(module, ModuleConfig::Tray(_)) {
+            let Some(item) = hit_box.segment.as_deref() else {
+                return;
+            };
+            let result = match interaction {
+                Interaction::Click { button, .. } => {
+                    let method = match button {
+                        PointerButton::Left => "Activate",
+                        PointerButton::Middle => "SecondaryActivate",
+                        PointerButton::Right => "ContextMenu",
+                    };
+                    activate_tray_item(item, method, 0, 0)
+                }
+                Interaction::Scroll { direction, .. } => {
+                    let delta = match direction {
+                        ScrollDirection::Up => 120,
+                        ScrollDirection::Down => -120,
+                    };
+                    scroll_tray_item(item, delta, "vertical")
+                }
+            };
+            if let Err(error) = result {
+                tracing::warn!(%error, "tray interaction failed");
+            }
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let action = match interaction {
+            Interaction::Click { button, .. } => action_for_button(module, button),
+            Interaction::Scroll { direction, .. } => action_for_scroll(module, direction),
+        }
+        .cloned();
+        let Some(action) = action else {
+            return;
+        };
+        match action {
+            Action::Builtin {
+                name: BuiltinAction::TogglePopover,
+            } => {
+                if self
+                    .popup
+                    .as_ref()
+                    .is_some_and(|popup| popup.module == hit_box.module)
+                {
+                    self.close_popup();
+                } else if let Some(serial) = serial
+                    && let Err(error) = self.open_popup(bar_index, &hit_box, serial, qh)
+                {
+                    tracing::warn!(%error, module = %hit_box.module, "could not open popup");
+                }
+            }
+            Action::Builtin { name } => {
+                if let ModuleConfig::Audio(settings) = module {
+                    let target = if hit_box.segment.as_deref() == Some("input") {
+                        AudioTarget::DefaultInput
+                    } else {
+                        AudioTarget::DefaultOutput
+                    };
+                    let action = match name {
+                        BuiltinAction::ToggleMute => Some(AudioAction::ToggleMute(target)),
+                        BuiltinAction::VolumeUp => Some(AudioAction::ChangeVolume(
+                            target,
+                            i16::from(settings.step_percent),
+                        )),
+                        BuiltinAction::VolumeDown => Some(AudioAction::ChangeVolume(
+                            target,
+                            -i16::from(settings.step_percent),
+                        )),
+                        _ => None,
+                    };
+                    if let Some(action) = action {
+                        if let Err(error) =
+                            self.module_runtime.audio_action(&hit_box.module, action)
+                        {
+                            tracing::warn!(%error, "could not control audio");
+                        }
+                        return;
+                    }
+                }
+                if let Err(error) = execute_builtin_for_module(name, module) {
+                    tracing::warn!(%error, module = %hit_box.module, "built-in action failed");
+                }
+            }
+            other => {
+                if let Err(error) = execute_action(&other) {
+                    tracing::warn!(%error, module = %hit_box.module, "module action failed");
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn handle_popup_click(&mut self, hit_box: HitBox, x: f64, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        let Some(id) = hit_box.segment.as_deref() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        if id.starts_with("audio-") {
+            self.handle_audio_control(&hit_box, x, qh);
+            return;
+        }
+        match id {
+            "previous-month" => self.change_calendar_month(-1, qh),
+            "next-month" => self.change_calendar_month(1, qh),
+            "open-settings" => {
+                let program = match self.bundle.config.modules.get(&hit_box.module) {
+                    Some(ModuleConfig::Network(_)) => Some("nm-connection-editor"),
+                    Some(ModuleConfig::Audio(_)) => Some("pavucontrol"),
+                    _ => None,
+                };
+                if let Some(program) = program
+                    && let Err(error) = Command::new(program).spawn()
+                {
+                    tracing::warn!(%error, program, "could not open external manager");
+                }
+                self.close_popup();
+            }
+            "slider" => {
+                if let Some(popup) = &self.popup {
+                    let padding = f64::from(self.bundle.theme.popup.padding) + 8.0;
+                    let width = (f64::from(popup.width) - padding * 2.0).max(1.0);
+                    let ratio = ((x - padding) / width).clamp(0.0, 1.0);
+                    if let Some(ModuleConfig::Backlight(settings)) =
+                        self.bundle.config.modules.get(&hit_box.module)
+                    {
+                        if let Err(error) =
+                            crate::modules::set_backlight_percent(settings, ratio * 100.0)
+                        {
+                            tracing::warn!(%error, "could not set popup brightness");
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            con_id
+                if self
+                    .bundle
+                    .config
+                    .modules
+                    .get(&hit_box.module)
+                    .is_some_and(|module| matches!(module, ModuleConfig::Scratchpad(_))) =>
+            {
+                if con_id.chars().all(|character| character.is_ascii_digit()) {
+                    let command = format!("[con_id={con_id}] scratchpad show");
+                    if let Err(error) = run_sway_command(&command) {
+                        tracing::warn!(%error, "could not show scratchpad window");
+                    }
+                }
+                self.close_popup();
+            }
+            tray_item
+                if self
+                    .bundle
+                    .config
+                    .modules
+                    .get(&hit_box.module)
+                    .is_some_and(|module| matches!(module, ModuleConfig::Tray(_))) =>
+            {
+                if let Err(error) = activate_tray_item(tray_item, "Activate", 0, 0) {
+                    tracing::warn!(%error, "tray popup activation failed");
+                }
+                self.close_popup();
+            }
+            _ => {}
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn change_calendar_month(&mut self, delta: i32, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        let Some(popup) = self.popup.as_mut() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let PopupContent::Calendar(calendar) = &mut popup.model.content else {
+            return;
+        };
+        shift_calendar(calendar, delta);
+        popup.calendar_offset = popup.calendar_offset.saturating_add(delta);
+        popup.dirty = true;
+        if popup.configured
+            && !popup.frame_pending
+            && let Err(error) = self.draw_popup(qh)
+        {
+            tracing::warn!(%error, "could not redraw calendar");
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn handle_audio_control(&mut self, hit: &HitBox, x: f64, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) {
+        let Some(popup) = self.popup.as_mut() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let PopupContent::Audio(audio) = &mut popup.model.content else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let Some(id) = hit.segment.as_deref() else {
+            return;
+        };
+        audio.focused = Some(id.to_owned());
+        let action = match id {
+            "audio-outputs" => {
+                audio.set_view(AudioView::Outputs);
+                None
+            }
+            "audio-inputs" => {
+                audio.set_view(AudioView::Inputs);
+                None
+            }
+            "audio-back" => {
+                audio.set_view(AudioView::Mixer);
+                None
+            }
+            "audio-scroll-up" => {
+                audio.offset = audio.offset.saturating_sub(1);
+                None
+            }
+            "audio-scroll-down" => {
+                audio.offset = (audio.offset + 1).min(audio.controls().len().saturating_sub(1));
+                None
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let Some((operation, device_id)) = id.split_once(':') else {
+                    return;
+                };
+                let Ok(device_id) = device_id.parse::<u32>() else {
+                    return;
+                };
+                let Some(device) = audio.devices.iter().find(|device| device.id == device_id)
+                else {
+                    return;
+                };
+                match operation {
+                    "audio-volume" if device.volume.is_some() => {
+                        let ratio = ((x - hit.rect.x - 8.0) / (hit.rect.width - 16.0).max(1.0))
+                            .clamp(0.0, 1.0);
+                        Some(AudioAction::SetVolume(device_id, ratio * 150.0))
+                    }
+                    "audio-mute" if device.muted.is_some() => {
+                        Some(AudioAction::ToggleMute(AudioTarget::Device(device_id)))
+                    }
+                    "audio-default" => {
+                        audio.set_view(AudioView::Mixer);
+                        Some(AudioAction::SetDefault(device_id))
+                    }
+                    _ => None,
+                }
+            }
+        };
+        if let Some(action) = action
+            && let Err(error) = self.module_runtime.audio_action(&hit.module, action)
+        {
+            tracing::warn!(%error, "could not queue audio control");
+        }
+        popup.dirty = true;
+        self.invalidate_all(qh);
+    }
+
+    fn handle_audio_key(&mut self, key: Keysym, qh: &QueueHandle<Self>) -> bool {
+        let Some(popup) = self.popup.as_mut() else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        let PopupContent::Audio(audio) = &mut popup.model.content else {
+            return false;
+        };
+        let available =
+            (f64::from(popup.height) - 2.0 * f64::from(self.bundle.theme.popup.padding) - 58.0)
+                .max(0.0);
+        match key {
+            Keysym::Tab | Keysym::Down => audio.move_focus(false, available),
+            Keysym::ISO_Left_Tab | Keysym::Up => audio.move_focus(true, available),
+            Keysym::Left | Keysym::Right | Keysym::Home | Keysym::End => {
+                if let Some(id) = audio
+                    .focused
+                    .as_deref()
+                    .and_then(|id| id.strip_prefix("audio-volume:"))
+                    .and_then(|id| id.parse::<u32>().ok())
+                {
+                    let step = match self.bundle.config.modules.get(&popup.module) {
+                        Some(ModuleConfig::Audio(settings)) => i16::from(settings.step_percent),
+                        _ => 5,
+                    };
+                    let action = match key {
+                        Keysym::Home => AudioAction::SetVolume(id, 0.0),
+                        Keysym::End => AudioAction::SetVolume(id, 150.0),
+                        _ => AudioAction::ChangeVolume(
+                            AudioTarget::Device(id),
+                            if key == Keysym::Left { -step } else { step },
+                        ),
+                    };
+                    if let Err(error) = self.module_runtime.audio_action(&popup.module, action) {
+                        tracing::warn!(%error, "could not adjust audio volume");
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            Keysym::Return | Keysym::KP_Enter | Keysym::space => {
+                if let Some(hit) = popup
+                    .hit_boxes
+                    .iter()
+                    .find(|hit| hit.segment.is_some() && hit.segment == audio.focused)
+                    .cloned()
+                {
+                    // Slider activation does not reset its value; arrow keys adjust it.
+                    if !hit
+                        .segment
+                        .as_deref()
+                        .is_some_and(|id| id.starts_with("audio-volume:"))
+                    {
+                        self.handle_popup_click(hit.clone(), hit.rect.x, qh);
+                    }
+                    return true;
+                }
+            }
+            _ => return true,
+        }
+        popup.dirty = true;
+        self.invalidate_all(qh);
+        true
+    }
+}
+
+fn configure_layer(layer: &LayerSurface, config: &BarConfig) {
+    let anchor = match config.position {
+        Position::Top => Anchor::TOP | Anchor::LEFT | Anchor::RIGHT,
+        Position::Bottom => Anchor::BOTTOM | Anchor::LEFT | Anchor::RIGHT,
+    };
+    layer.set_anchor(anchor);
+    layer.set_size(0, config.height);
+    layer.set_exclusive_zone(i32::try_from(config.height).unwrap_or(i32::MAX));
+    layer.set_keyboard_interactivity(KeyboardInteractivity::None);
+}
+
+const fn map_layer(layer: Layer) -> WlrLayer {
+    match layer {
+        Layer::Background => WlrLayer::Background,
+        Layer::Bottom => WlrLayer::Bottom,
+        Layer::Top => WlrLayer::Top,
+        Layer::Overlay => WlrLayer::Overlay,
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_buffer_size(width: u32, height: u32) -> Result<()> {
+    if width == 0 || height == 0 {
+        bail!("surface has zero-sized buffer");
+    }
+    let bytes = u64::from(width)
+        .checked_mul(u64::from(height))
+        .and_then(|pixels| pixels.checked_mul(4))
+        .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!("surface buffer size overflow"))?;
+    if bytes > 256 * 1024 * 1024 {
+        bail!("surface buffer exceeds 256 MiB safety limit");
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn quote_sway_arg(value: &str) -> String {
+    format!("\"{}\"", value.replace('\\', "\\\\").replace('"', "\\\""))
+}
+
+fn shift_calendar(calendar: &mut CalendarModel, delta: i32) {
+    let month_index = calendar
+        .year
+        .saturating_mul(12)
+        .saturating_add(i32::try_from(calendar.month).unwrap_or(1) - 1)
+        .saturating_add(delta);
+    calendar.year = month_index.div_euclid(12);
+    calendar.month = u32::try_from(month_index.rem_euclid(12) + 1).unwrap_or(1);
+    calendar.selected_day = calendar
+        .selected_day
+        .min(days_in_month(calendar.year, calendar.month));
+}
+
+fn days_in_month(year: i32, month: u32) -> u32 {
+    use chrono::{Datelike, NaiveDate};
+    let next = if month == 12 {
+        NaiveDate::from_ymd_opt(year + 1, 1, 1)
+    } else {
+        NaiveDate::from_ymd_opt(year, month + 1, 1)
+    };
+    next.and_then(|next| next.pred_opt())
+        .map_or(28, |last| last.day())
+}
+
+impl CompositorHandler for App {
+    fn scale_factor_changed(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        surface: &wl_surface::WlSurface,
+        new_factor: i32,
+    ) {
+        let scale = u32::try_from(new_factor.max(1)).unwrap_or(1);
+        if let Some(index) = self
+            .bars
+            .iter()
+            .position(|bar| bar.layer.wl_surface() == surface)
+        {
+            let bar = &mut self.bars[index];
+            bar.scale = scale;
+            bar.buffer = None;
+            bar.dirty = true;
+            surface.set_buffer_scale(new_factor.max(1));
+            self.invalidate(index, qh);
+        } else if let Some(popup) = self
+            .popup
+            .as_mut()
+            .filter(|popup| popup.popup.wl_surface() == surface)
+        {
+            popup.scale = scale;
+            popup.buffer = None;
+            popup.dirty = true;
+            surface.set_buffer_scale(new_factor.max(1));
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn transform_changed(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _surface: &wl_surface::WlSurface,
+        _new_transform: wl_output::Transform,
+    ) {
+    }
+
+    fn frame(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        surface: &wl_surface::WlSurface,
+        _time: u32,
+    ) {
+        if let Some(index) = self
+            .bars
+            .iter()
+            .position(|bar| bar.layer.wl_surface() == surface)
+        {
+            self.bars[index].frame_pending = false;
+            self.invalidate(index, qh);
+        } else if let Some(popup) = self
+            .popup
+            .as_mut()
+            .filter(|popup| popup.popup.wl_surface() == surface)
+        {
+            popup.frame_pending = false;
+            if popup.dirty
+                && let Err(error) = self.draw_popup(qh)
+            {
+                tracing::error!(%error, "popup redraw failed");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn surface_enter(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _surface: &wl_surface::WlSurface,
+        _output: &wl_output::WlOutput,
+    ) {
+    }
+
+    fn surface_leave(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _surface: &wl_surface::WlSurface,
+        _output: &wl_output::WlOutput,
+    ) {
+    }
+}
+
+impl OutputHandler for App {
+    fn output_state(&mut self) -> &mut OutputState {
+        &mut self.output_state
+    }
+
+    fn new_output(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        output: wl_output::WlOutput,
+    ) {
+        self.sync_output(output, qh);
+    }
+
+    fn update_output(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        output: wl_output::WlOutput,
+    ) {
+        self.sync_output(output, qh);
+    }
+
+    fn output_destroyed(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        output: wl_output::WlOutput,
+    ) {
+        self.bars.retain(|bar| bar.output != output);
+    }
+}
+
+impl LayerShellHandler for App {
+    fn closed(&mut self, _connection: &Connection, _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>, layer: &LayerSurface) {
+        self.bars.retain(|bar| &bar.layer != layer);
+    }
+
+    fn configure(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        layer: &LayerSurface,
+        configure: LayerSurfaceConfigure,
+        _serial: u32,
+    ) {
+        let Some(index) = self.bars.iter().position(|bar| &bar.layer == layer) else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let bar = &mut self.bars[index];
+        let width = NonZeroU32::new(configure.new_size.0).map_or(bar.width.max(1), NonZeroU32::get);
+        let height = NonZeroU32::new(configure.new_size.1)
+            .map_or(self.bundle.config.bar.height, NonZeroU32::get);
+        if bar.width != width || bar.height != height {
+            bar.width = width;
+            bar.height = height;
+            bar.buffer = None;
+        }
+        bar.configured = true;
+        bar.dirty = true;
+        self.invalidate(index, qh);
+    }
+}
+
+impl PopupHandler for App {
+    fn configure(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        popup: &Popup,
+        config: PopupConfigure,
+    ) {
+        let Some(active) = self.popup.as_mut().filter(|active| &active.popup == popup) else {
+            return;
+        };
+        if config.width > 0 && config.height > 0 {
+            active.width = u32::try_from(config.width).unwrap_or(active.width);
+            active.height = u32::try_from(config.height).unwrap_or(active.height);
+            active.buffer = None;
+        }
+        active.configured = true;
+        active.dirty = true;
+        if let Err(error) = self.draw_popup(qh) {
+            tracing::error!(%error, "initial popup draw failed");
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn done(&mut self, _connection: &Connection, _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>, popup: &Popup) {
+        if self
+            .popup
+            .as_ref()
+            .is_some_and(|active| &active.popup == popup)
+        {
+            self.close_popup();
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl SeatHandler for App {
+    fn seat_state(&mut self) -> &mut SeatState {
+        &mut self.seat_state
+    }
+
+    fn new_seat(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        seat: wl_seat::WlSeat,
+    ) {
+        self.seat.get_or_insert(seat);
+    }
+
+    fn new_capability(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        seat: wl_seat::WlSeat,
+        capability: Capability,
+    ) {
+        self.seat.get_or_insert_with(|| seat.clone());
+        if capability == Capability::Pointer && self.pointer.is_none() {
+            match self.seat_state.get_pointer(qh, &seat) {
+                Ok(pointer) => self.pointer = Some(pointer),
+                Err(error) => tracing::warn!(%error, "could not create Wayland pointer"),
+            }
+        }
+        if capability == Capability::Keyboard && self.keyboard.is_none() {
+            match self.seat_state.get_keyboard(qh, &seat, None) {
+                Ok(keyboard) => self.keyboard = Some(keyboard),
+                Err(error) => tracing::warn!(%error, "could not create Wayland keyboard"),
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn remove_capability(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _seat: wl_seat::WlSeat,
+        capability: Capability,
+    ) {
+        if capability == Capability::Pointer
+            && let Some(pointer) = self.pointer.take()
+        {
+            pointer.release();
+        }
+        if capability == Capability::Keyboard
+            && let Some(keyboard) = self.keyboard.take()
+        {
+            keyboard.release();
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn remove_seat(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        seat: wl_seat::WlSeat,
+    ) {
+        if self.seat.as_ref() == Some(&seat) {
+            self.seat = None;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl PointerHandler for App {
+    fn pointer_frame(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _pointer: &wl_pointer::WlPointer,
+        events: &[PointerEvent],
+    ) {
+        for event in events {
+            if let Some(index) = self
+                .bars
+                .iter()
+                .position(|bar| bar.layer.wl_surface() == &event.surface)
+            {
+                let hit = hit_test(
+                    &self.bars[index].hit_boxes,
+                    event.position.0,
+                    event.position.1,
+                )
+                .cloned();
+                match event.kind {
+                    PointerEventKind::Enter { .. } | PointerEventKind::Motion { .. } => {
+                        let hovered = hit
+                            .as_ref()
+                            .map(|hit| (hit.module.clone(), hit.segment.clone()));
+                        if self.bars[index].hovered != hovered {
+                            self.bars[index].hovered = hovered;
+                            self.bars[index].dirty = true;
+                            self.invalidate(index, qh);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    PointerEventKind::Leave { .. } => {
+                        if self.bars[index].hovered.take().is_some() {
+                            self.bars[index].dirty = true;
+                            self.invalidate(index, qh);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    PointerEventKind::Press { button, serial, .. } => {
+                        if let (Some(hit), Some(button)) = (hit, pointer_button(button)) {
+                            self.handle_bar_interaction(
+                                index,
+                                hit.clone(),
+                                Interaction::Click {
+                                    module: hit.module.clone(),
+                                    segment: hit.segment.clone(),
+                                    button,
+                                },
+                                Some(serial),
+                                qh,
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                    PointerEventKind::Axis { vertical, .. } => {
+                        let amount = if vertical.value120 != 0 {
+                            f64::from(vertical.value120)
+                        } else if vertical.discrete != 0 {
+                            f64::from(vertical.discrete)
+                        } else {
+                            vertical.absolute
+                        };
+                        if let Some(hit) = hit.filter(|_| amount != 0.0) {
+                            let direction = if amount < 0.0 {
+                                ScrollDirection::Up
+                            } else {
+                                ScrollDirection::Down
+                            };
+                            self.handle_bar_interaction(
+                                index,
+                                hit.clone(),
+                                Interaction::Scroll {
+                                    module: hit.module.clone(),
+                                    segment: hit.segment.clone(),
+                                    direction,
+                                },
+                                None,
+                                qh,
+                            );
+                        }
+                    }
+                    PointerEventKind::Release { .. } => {}
+                }
+            } else if let Some(popup) = self
+                .popup
+                .as_ref()
+                .filter(|popup| popup.popup.wl_surface() == &event.surface)
+            {
+                let hit = hit_test(&popup.hit_boxes, event.position.0, event.position.1).cloned();
+                match event.kind {
+                    PointerEventKind::Press {
+                        button: BTN_LEFT, ..
+                    } => {
+                        if let Some(hit) = hit {
+                            self.handle_popup_click(hit, event.position.0, qh);
+                        }
+                    }
+                    PointerEventKind::Axis { vertical, .. }
+                        if matches!(popup.model.content, PopupContent::Audio(_)) =>
+                    {
+                        let amount = if vertical.value120 != 0 {
+                            f64::from(vertical.value120)
+                        } else if vertical.discrete != 0 {
+                            f64::from(vertical.discrete)
+                        } else {
+                            vertical.absolute
+                        };
+                        if amount != 0.0 {
+                            if let Some(hit) = hit.filter(|hit| {
+                                hit.segment
+                                    .as_deref()
+                                    .is_some_and(|id| id.starts_with("audio-volume:"))
+                            }) {
+                                if let Some(popup) = self.popup.as_mut()
+                                    && let PopupContent::Audio(audio) = &mut popup.model.content
+                                {
+                                    audio.focused = hit.segment;
+                                }
+                                self.handle_audio_key(
+                                    if amount < 0.0 {
+                                        Keysym::Right
+                                    } else {
+                                        Keysym::Left
+                                    },
+                                    qh,
+                                );
+                            } else {
+                                let hit = HitBox {
+                                    rect: crate::render::Rect::default(),
+                                    module: popup.module.clone(),
+                                    segment: Some(
+                                        if amount < 0.0 {
+                                            "audio-scroll-up"
+                                        } else {
+                                            "audio-scroll-down"
+                                        }
+                                        .to_owned(),
+                                    ),
+                                };
+                                self.handle_audio_control(&hit, 0.0, qh);
+                            }
+                        }
+                    }
+                    _ => {}
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl KeyboardHandler for App {
+    fn enter(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _keyboard: &wl_keyboard::WlKeyboard,
+        _surface: &wl_surface::WlSurface,
+        _serial: u32,
+        _raw: &[u32],
+        _keysyms: &[Keysym],
+    ) {
+    }
+
+    fn leave(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _keyboard: &wl_keyboard::WlKeyboard,
+        _surface: &wl_surface::WlSurface,
+        _serial: u32,
+    ) {
+    }
+
+    fn press_key(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _keyboard: &wl_keyboard::WlKeyboard,
+        _serial: u32,
+        event: KeyEvent,
+    ) {
+        if event.keysym == Keysym::Escape {
+            self.close_popup();
+        } else if self.handle_audio_key(event.keysym, qh) {
+        } else if event.keysym == Keysym::Left {
+            self.change_calendar_month(-1, qh);
+        } else if event.keysym == Keysym::Right {
+            self.change_calendar_month(1, qh);
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn repeat_key(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _keyboard: &wl_keyboard::WlKeyboard,
+        _serial: u32,
+        _event: KeyEvent,
+    ) {
+    }
+
+    fn release_key(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _keyboard: &wl_keyboard::WlKeyboard,
+        _serial: u32,
+        _event: KeyEvent,
+    ) {
+    }
+
+    fn update_modifiers(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _keyboard: &wl_keyboard::WlKeyboard,
+        _serial: u32,
+        _modifiers: Modifiers,
+        _raw_modifiers: RawModifiers,
+        _layout: u32,
+    ) {
+    }
+}
+
+impl ShmHandler for App {
+    fn shm_state(&mut self) -> &mut Shm {
+        &mut self.shm
+    }
+}
+
+// XdgShell also binds the optional decoration manager. Lightbar never creates an
+// xdg-toplevel, but SCTK requires the handler so popup and toplevel dispatch
+// share one correctly configured shell state.
+impl WindowHandler for App {
+    fn request_close(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _window: &Window,
+    ) {
+    }
+
+    fn configure(
+        &mut self,
+        _connection: &Connection,
+        _qh: &QueueHandle<Self>,
+        _window: &Window,
+        _configure: WindowConfigure,
+        _serial: u32,
+    ) {
+    }
+}
+
+fn pointer_button(button: u32) -> Option<PointerButton> {
+    match button {
+        BTN_LEFT => Some(PointerButton::Left),
+        BTN_MIDDLE => Some(PointerButton::Middle),
+        BTN_RIGHT => Some(PointerButton::Right),
+        _ => None,
+    }
+}
+
+delegate_registry!(App);
+
+impl ProvidesRegistryState for App {
+    fn registry(&mut self) -> &mut RegistryState {
+        &mut self.registry_state
+    }
+
+    registry_handlers![OutputState, SeatState];
+}
+
+smithay_client_toolkit::delegate_dispatch2!(App);
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use notify::event::{
+        AccessKind, AccessMode, CreateKind, DataChange, EventKind, MetadataKind, ModifyKind,
+    };
+
+    #[test]
+    fn quotes_sway_arguments() {
+        assert_eq!(quote_sway_arg("dev"), "\"dev\"");
+        assert_eq!(quote_sway_arg("a\"b\\c"), "\"a\\\"b\\\\c\"");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn shifts_calendar_across_years() {
+        let mut calendar = CalendarModel {
+            year: 2025,
+            month: 12,
+            selected_day: 31,
+        };
+        shift_calendar(&mut calendar, 2);
+        assert_eq!(
+            (calendar.year, calendar.month, calendar.selected_day),
+            (2026, 2, 28)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn config_watch_ignores_reads_and_unrelated_files() {
+        let config = PathBuf::from("/tmp/lightbar/config.toml");
+        let files = BTreeSet::from([config.clone()]);
+        let opened = notify::Event::new(EventKind::Access(AccessKind::Open(AccessMode::Read)))
+            .add_path(config.clone());
+        let atime = notify::Event::new(EventKind::Modify(ModifyKind::Metadata(
+            MetadataKind::AccessTime,
+        )))
+        .add_path(config.clone());
+        let unrelated = notify::Event::new(EventKind::Create(CreateKind::File))
+            .add_path(PathBuf::from("/tmp/lightbar/bar.conf"));
+
+        assert!(!event_requires_reload(&opened, &files));
+        assert!(!event_requires_reload(&atime, &files));
+        assert!(!event_requires_reload(&unrelated, &files));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn config_watch_accepts_writes_to_watched_files() {
+        let config = PathBuf::from("/tmp/lightbar/config.toml");
+        let files = BTreeSet::from([config.clone()]);
+        let modified = notify::Event::new(EventKind::Modify(ModifyKind::Data(DataChange::Content)))
+            .add_path(config.clone());
+        let closed = notify::Event::new(EventKind::Access(AccessKind::Close(AccessMode::Write)))
+            .add_path(config);
+
+        assert!(event_requires_reload(&modified, &files));
+        assert!(event_requires_reload(&closed, &files));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/cli.rs b/src/cli.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aa60dea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/cli.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+use std::path::PathBuf;
+
+use clap::{Parser, Subcommand, ValueEnum};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Parser)]
+#[command(name = "lightbar", version, about)]
+pub struct Cli {
+    /// Sway bar identifier. Sway appends this argument to `swaybar_command`.
+    #[arg(short = 'b', long, global = true)]
+    pub bar_id: Option<String>,
+
+    /// Override the default `$XDG_CONFIG_HOME/lightbar/config.toml` path.
+    #[arg(short, long, global = true, value_name = "FILE")]
+    pub config: Option<PathBuf>,
+
+    /// Logging verbosity. `LIGHTBAR_LOG` and `RUST_LOG` are also recognized.
+    #[arg(long, global = true, value_enum, default_value_t = LogLevel::Info)]
+    pub log_level: LogLevel,
+
+    #[command(subcommand)]
+    pub command: Option<Command>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Subcommand)]
+pub enum Command {
+    /// Parse and validate the configuration without opening a Wayland surface.
+    CheckConfig,
+    /// Check the local environment and report actionable problems.
+    Doctor,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, ValueEnum)]
+pub enum LogLevel {
+    Error,
+    Warn,
+    Info,
+    Debug,
+    Trace,
+}
+
+impl std::fmt::Display for LogLevel {
+    fn fmt(&self, formatter: &mut std::fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> std::fmt::Result {
+        formatter.write_str(match self {
+            Self::Error => "error",
+            Self::Warn => "warn",
+            Self::Info => "info",
+            Self::Debug => "debug",
+            Self::Trace => "trace",
+        })
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/config.rs b/src/config.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5d6cfdb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/config.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1060 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet},
+    env, fmt, fs,
+    path::{Path, PathBuf},
+    str::FromStr,
+    time::Duration,
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, anyhow, bail};
+use serde::{Deserialize, Deserializer};
+
+use crate::APP_NAME;
+
+pub const CONFIG_VERSION: u32 = 1;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ConfigBundle {
+    pub config_path: PathBuf,
+    pub theme_path: PathBuf,
+    pub config: Config,
+    pub theme: Theme,
+}
+
+impl ConfigBundle {
+    pub fn load(path: Option<&Path>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let config_path = path.map_or_else(default_config_path, Path::to_path_buf);
+        let source = fs::read_to_string(&config_path)
+            .with_context(|| format!("could not read config {}", config_path.display()))?;
+        let raw: RawConfig = toml::from_str(&source)
+            .with_context(|| format!("invalid TOML in {}", config_path.display()))?;
+        let config = Config::try_from(raw)
+            .with_context(|| format!("invalid configuration in {}", config_path.display()))?;
+
+        let config_dir = config_path.parent().unwrap_or_else(|| Path::new("."));
+        let theme_path = if config.theme.is_absolute() {
+            config.theme.clone()
+        } else {
+            config_dir.join(&config.theme)
+        };
+        let theme_source = fs::read_to_string(&theme_path)
+            .with_context(|| format!("could not read theme {}", theme_path.display()))?;
+        let theme: Theme = toml::from_str(&theme_source)
+            .with_context(|| format!("invalid theme TOML in {}", theme_path.display()))?;
+        theme
+            .validate()
+            .with_context(|| format!("invalid theme in {}", theme_path.display()))?;
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            config_path,
+            theme_path,
+            config,
+            theme,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn default_config_path() -> PathBuf {
+    if let Some(path) = env::var_os("XDG_CONFIG_HOME") {
+        return PathBuf::from(path).join(APP_NAME).join("config.toml");
+    }
+    env::var_os("HOME").map_or_else(
+        || PathBuf::from("config.toml"),
+        |home| {
+            PathBuf::from(home)
+                .join(".config")
+                .join(APP_NAME)
+                .join("config.toml")
+        },
+    )
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct Config {
+    pub version: u32,
+    pub theme: PathBuf,
+    pub bar: BarConfig,
+    pub layout: LayoutConfig,
+    pub modules: BTreeMap<String, ModuleConfig>,
+}
+
+impl TryFrom<RawConfig> for Config {
+    type Error = anyhow::Error;
+
+    fn try_from(raw: RawConfig) -> Result<Self> {
+        if raw.version != CONFIG_VERSION {
+            bail!(
+                "unsupported config version {}; expected {CONFIG_VERSION}",
+                raw.version
+            );
+        }
+        raw.bar.validate()?;
+
+        let mut modules = BTreeMap::new();
+        for (name, value) in raw.modules {
+            validate_identifier(&name)?;
+            let module = parse_module(&name, value)?;
+            module
+                .validate()
+                .with_context(|| format!("invalid module {name:?}"))?;
+            modules.insert(name, module);
+        }
+
+        let mut seen = BTreeSet::new();
+        for name in raw.layout.iter() {
+            if !modules.contains_key(name) {
+                bail!("layout references unknown module {name:?}");
+            }
+            if !seen.insert(name) {
+                bail!("module {name:?} appears more than once in the layout");
+            }
+        }
+
+        if modules.is_empty() {
+            bail!("at least one module must be configured");
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            version: raw.version,
+            theme: raw.theme,
+            bar: raw.bar,
+            layout: raw.layout,
+            modules,
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_identifier(name: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    let valid = !name.is_empty()
+        && name
+            .chars()
+            .all(|character| character.is_ascii_alphanumeric() || matches!(character, '-' | '_'));
+    if !valid {
+        bail!("invalid module name {name:?}; use ASCII letters, digits, '-' or '_'");
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+struct RawConfig {
+    version: u32,
+    theme: PathBuf,
+    bar: BarConfig,
+    layout: LayoutConfig,
+    modules: BTreeMap<String, toml::Value>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct BarConfig {
+    pub position: Position,
+    pub height: u32,
+    pub layer: Layer,
+    pub outputs: Vec<String>,
+    pub namespace: String,
+    pub popup_width: u32,
+    pub popup_max_height: u32,
+}
+
+impl Default for BarConfig {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            position: Position::Top,
+            height: 24,
+            layer: Layer::Top,
+            outputs: vec!["*".to_owned()],
+            namespace: APP_NAME.to_owned(),
+            popup_width: 320,
+            popup_max_height: 480,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl BarConfig {
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if !(12..=256).contains(&self.height) {
+            bail!("bar.height must be between 12 and 256 logical pixels");
+        }
+        if self.outputs.is_empty() {
+            bail!("bar.outputs must contain '*' or at least one output name");
+        }
+        if self.outputs.iter().any(|output| output.trim().is_empty()) {
+            bail!("bar.outputs cannot contain an empty output name");
+        }
+        if !(160..=1_920).contains(&self.popup_width) {
+            bail!("bar.popup_width must be between 160 and 1920 logical pixels");
+        }
+        if !(80..=2_160).contains(&self.popup_max_height) {
+            bail!("bar.popup_max_height must be between 80 and 2160 logical pixels");
+        }
+        validate_identifier(&self.namespace)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn output_enabled(&self, output: &str) -> bool {
+        self.outputs
+            .iter()
+            .any(|candidate| candidate == "*" || candidate == output)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "kebab-case")]
+pub enum Position {
+    Top,
+    Bottom,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "kebab-case")]
+pub enum Layer {
+    Background,
+    Bottom,
+    Top,
+    Overlay,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct LayoutConfig {
+    pub left: Vec<String>,
+    pub center: Vec<String>,
+    pub right: Vec<String>,
+}
+
+impl LayoutConfig {
+    pub fn iter(&self) -> impl Iterator<Item = &str> {
+        self.left
+            .iter()
+            .chain(&self.center)
+            .chain(&self.right)
+            .map(String::as_str)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub enum ModuleConfig {
+    Workspaces(WorkspacesModule),
+    Mode(ModeModule),
+    Scratchpad(ScratchpadModule),
+    Network(NetworkModule),
+    Temperature(TemperatureModule),
+    Backlight(BacklightModule),
+    Audio(AudioModule),
+    Battery(BatteryModule),
+    Clock(ClockModule),
+    Command(CommandModule),
+    Tray(TrayModule),
+}
+
+impl ModuleConfig {
+    pub fn common(&self) -> &ModuleCommon {
+        match self {
+            Self::Workspaces(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Mode(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Scratchpad(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Network(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Temperature(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Backlight(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Audio(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Battery(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Clock(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Command(module) => &module.common,
+            Self::Tray(module) => &module.common,
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        let common = self.common();
+        for action in [
+            &common.actions.left,
+            &common.actions.middle,
+            &common.actions.right,
+            &common.actions.scroll_up,
+            &common.actions.scroll_down,
+        ]
+        .into_iter()
+        .flatten()
+        {
+            action.validate()?;
+        }
+
+        match self {
+            Self::Temperature(module) => {
+                validate_interval(module.interval, "interval")?;
+                if module.warning_c >= module.critical_c {
+                    bail!("warning_c must be lower than critical_c");
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Backlight(module) => validate_step(module.step_percent)?,
+            Self::Audio(module) => validate_step(module.step_percent)?,
+            Self::Battery(module) => {
+                if module.critical_percent > module.warning_percent || module.warning_percent > 100
+                {
+                    bail!(
+                        "battery percentages must satisfy critical_percent <= warning_percent <= 100"
+                    );
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Clock(module) => validate_interval(module.interval, "interval")?,
+            Self::Command(module) => {
+                validate_interval(module.interval, "interval")?;
+                validate_interval(module.timeout, "timeout")?;
+                match (module.argv.is_empty(), module.shell.as_deref()) {
+                    (false, None) if !module.argv[0].trim().is_empty() => {}
+                    (true, Some(shell)) if !shell.trim().is_empty() => {}
+                    (false, Some(_)) => bail!("set either argv or shell, not both"),
+                    _ => bail!("command module requires a non-empty argv or shell"),
+                }
+                if !(1..=1_048_576).contains(&module.max_output_bytes) {
+                    bail!("max_output_bytes must be between 1 and 1048576");
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Tray(module) => {
+                if !(8..=256).contains(&module.icon_size) {
+                    bail!("tray icon_size must be between 8 and 256");
+                }
+                if !(1..=32).contains(&module.menu_max_depth) {
+                    bail!("tray menu_max_depth must be between 1 and 32");
+                }
+                if !(1..=4096).contains(&module.menu_max_items) {
+                    bail!("tray menu_max_items must be between 1 and 4096");
+                }
+                if !(1024..=64 * 1024 * 1024).contains(&module.pixmap_max_bytes) {
+                    bail!("tray pixmap_max_bytes must be between 1024 and 67108864");
+                }
+            }
+            Self::Workspaces(_) | Self::Mode(_) | Self::Scratchpad(_) | Self::Network(_) => {}
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+}
+
+fn validate_step(step: u8) -> Result<()> {
+    if !(1..=100).contains(&step) {
+        bail!("step_percent must be between 1 and 100");
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn validate_interval(duration: HumanDuration, field: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    if duration.0 > Duration::from_secs(24 * 60 * 60) {
+        bail!("{field} cannot exceed 24h");
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn parse_module(name: &str, value: toml::Value) -> Result<ModuleConfig> {
+    let kind = value
+        .as_table()
+        .and_then(|table| table.get("kind"))
+        .and_then(toml::Value::as_str)
+        .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!("module {name:?} must contain a string 'kind'"))?
+        .to_owned();
+
+    macro_rules! decode {
+        ($type:ty, $variant:ident) => {{
+            let decoded: $type = value
+                .try_into()
+                .with_context(|| format!("invalid {kind} module {name:?}"))?;
+            ModuleConfig::$variant(decoded)
+        }};
+    }
+
+    let module = match kind.as_str() {
+        "workspaces" => decode!(WorkspacesModule, Workspaces),
+        "mode" => decode!(ModeModule, Mode),
+        "scratchpad" => decode!(ScratchpadModule, Scratchpad),
+        "network" => decode!(NetworkModule, Network),
+        "temperature" => decode!(TemperatureModule, Temperature),
+        "backlight" => decode!(BacklightModule, Backlight),
+        "audio" => decode!(AudioModule, Audio),
+        "battery" => decode!(BatteryModule, Battery),
+        "clock" => decode!(ClockModule, Clock),
+        "command" => decode!(CommandModule, Command),
+        "tray" => decode!(TrayModule, Tray),
+        other => bail!("module {name:?} has unsupported kind {other:?}"),
+    };
+    Ok(module)
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct ModuleCommon {
+    pub enabled: bool,
+    pub unavailable: UnavailableBehavior,
+    pub style: StyleOverride,
+    pub actions: ActionBindings,
+}
+
+impl Default for ModuleCommon {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            enabled: true,
+            unavailable: UnavailableBehavior::Hide,
+            style: StyleOverride::default(),
+            actions: ActionBindings::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Default, Eq, PartialEq, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "kebab-case")]
+pub enum UnavailableBehavior {
+    #[default]
+    Hide,
+    Placeholder,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct ActionBindings {
+    pub left: Option<Action>,
+    pub middle: Option<Action>,
+    pub right: Option<Action>,
+    pub scroll_up: Option<Action>,
+    pub scroll_down: Option<Action>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(tag = "type", rename_all = "kebab-case", deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub enum Action {
+    Builtin { name: BuiltinAction },
+    Sway { command: String },
+    Exec { argv: Vec<String> },
+    Shell { command: String },
+}
+
+impl Action {
+    pub fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        match self {
+            Self::Builtin { .. } => Ok(()),
+            Self::Sway { command } | Self::Shell { command } if command.trim().is_empty() => {
+                bail!("action command cannot be empty")
+            }
+            Self::Exec { argv } if argv.is_empty() || argv[0].trim().is_empty() => {
+                bail!("exec action argv must start with a program")
+            }
+            _ => Ok(()),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "kebab-case")]
+pub enum BuiltinAction {
+    TogglePopover,
+    ClosePopover,
+    ToggleMute,
+    VolumeUp,
+    VolumeDown,
+    BrightnessUp,
+    BrightnessDown,
+    PreviousMonth,
+    NextMonth,
+}
+
+macro_rules! simple_module {
+    ($name:ident, $expected_kind:literal, $default_format:literal) => {
+        #[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+        #[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+        pub struct $name {
+            pub kind: String,
+            pub format: String,
+            pub common: ModuleCommon,
+        }
+
+        impl Default for $name {
+            fn default() -> Self {
+                Self {
+                    kind: $expected_kind.to_owned(),
+                    format: $default_format.to_owned(),
+                    common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+simple_module!(WorkspacesModule, "workspaces", "{index}");
+simple_module!(ModeModule, "mode", "{mode}");
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct ScratchpadModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub format: String,
+    pub empty_format: String,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for ScratchpadModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "scratchpad".to_owned(),
+            format: "^{count}".to_owned(),
+            empty_format: "^0".to_owned(),
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct NetworkModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub format_connected: String,
+    pub format_disconnected: String,
+    pub interface: Option<String>,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for NetworkModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "network".to_owned(),
+            format_connected: " {ssid}".to_owned(),
+            format_disconnected: "睊 Disconnected".to_owned(),
+            interface: None,
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct TemperatureModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub format: String,
+    pub sensor: Option<PathBuf>,
+    pub label: Option<String>,
+    pub interval: HumanDuration,
+    pub warning_c: f64,
+    pub critical_c: f64,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for TemperatureModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "temperature".to_owned(),
+            format: " {temperature_c:.0}°C".to_owned(),
+            sensor: None,
+            label: None,
+            interval: HumanDuration(Duration::from_secs(30)),
+            warning_c: 75.0,
+            critical_c: 90.0,
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct BacklightModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub format: String,
+    pub device: Option<String>,
+    pub step_percent: u8,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for BacklightModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "backlight".to_owned(),
+            format: " {percent}%".to_owned(),
+            device: None,
+            step_percent: 5,
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct AudioModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub format: String,
+    pub muted_format: String,
+    pub microphone_format: String,
+    pub microphone_muted_format: String,
+    pub step_percent: u8,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for AudioModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "audio".to_owned(),
+            format: " {volume}%".to_owned(),
+            muted_format: "婢 Mute".to_owned(),
+            microphone_format: " {volume}%".to_owned(),
+            microphone_muted_format: " Mute".to_owned(),
+            step_percent: 5,
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct BatteryModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub format: String,
+    pub full_format: String,
+    pub warning_percent: u8,
+    pub critical_percent: u8,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for BatteryModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "battery".to_owned(),
+            format: "{icon} {percent}%".to_owned(),
+            full_format: " {percent}%".to_owned(),
+            warning_percent: 20,
+            critical_percent: 10,
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct ClockModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub format: String,
+    pub interval: HumanDuration,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for ClockModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "clock".to_owned(),
+            format: "%a, %d. %b  %H:%M:%S".to_owned(),
+            interval: HumanDuration(Duration::from_secs(1)),
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct CommandModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub mode: CommandMode,
+    pub argv: Vec<String>,
+    pub shell: Option<String>,
+    pub interval: HumanDuration,
+    pub timeout: HumanDuration,
+    pub max_output_bytes: usize,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for CommandModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "command".to_owned(),
+            mode: CommandMode::Interval,
+            argv: Vec::new(),
+            shell: None,
+            interval: HumanDuration(Duration::from_secs(30)),
+            timeout: HumanDuration(Duration::from_secs(2)),
+            max_output_bytes: 65_536,
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Default, Eq, PartialEq, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(rename_all = "kebab-case")]
+pub enum CommandMode {
+    #[default]
+    Interval,
+    Stream,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct TrayModule {
+    pub kind: String,
+    pub icon_size: u32,
+    pub spacing: u32,
+    pub menu_max_depth: usize,
+    pub menu_max_items: usize,
+    pub pixmap_max_bytes: usize,
+    pub common: ModuleCommon,
+}
+
+impl Default for TrayModule {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            kind: "tray".to_owned(),
+            icon_size: 16,
+            spacing: 12,
+            menu_max_depth: 8,
+            menu_max_items: 512,
+            pixmap_max_bytes: 4 * 1024 * 1024,
+            common: ModuleCommon::default(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Ord, PartialOrd)]
+pub struct HumanDuration(pub Duration);
+
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for HumanDuration {
+    fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> Result<Self, D::Error>
+    where
+        D: Deserializer<'de>,
+    {
+        let value = String::deserialize(deserializer)?;
+        parse_duration(&value)
+            .map(Self)
+            .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)
+    }
+}
+
+fn parse_duration(value: &str) -> Result<Duration> {
+    let (number, multiplier) = if let Some(number) = value.strip_suffix("ms") {
+        (number, 1_u64)
+    } else if let Some(number) = value.strip_suffix('s') {
+        (number, 1_000)
+    } else if let Some(number) = value.strip_suffix('m') {
+        (number, 60_000)
+    } else if let Some(number) = value.strip_suffix('h') {
+        (number, 3_600_000)
+    } else {
+        bail!("duration {value:?} must end in ms, s, m, or h");
+    };
+    let count: u64 = number
+        .parse()
+        .with_context(|| format!("invalid duration number in {value:?}"))?;
+    let millis = count
+        .checked_mul(multiplier)
+        .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!("duration {value:?} is too large"))?;
+    if millis == 0 {
+        bail!("duration must be greater than zero");
+    }
+    Ok(Duration::from_millis(millis))
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct Theme {
+    pub font: FontTheme,
+    pub bar: SurfaceTheme,
+    pub popup: SurfaceTheme,
+    pub module: Style,
+    pub states: BTreeMap<String, StyleOverride>,
+    pub modules: BTreeMap<String, StyleOverride>,
+}
+
+impl Default for Theme {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        let mut states = BTreeMap::new();
+        states.insert(
+            "focused".to_owned(),
+            StyleOverride {
+                foreground: Some(Rgba::BLACK),
+                background: Some(Rgba::rgb(0x7c, 0xaf, 0xc2)),
+                border: Some(Rgba::rgb(0xdd, 0xdd, 0xdd)),
+                ..StyleOverride::default()
+            },
+        );
+        states.insert(
+            "urgent".to_owned(),
+            StyleOverride {
+                foreground: Some(Rgba::rgb(0x22, 0x22, 0x22)),
+                background: Some(Rgba::rgb(0xab, 0x46, 0x42)),
+                border: Some(Rgba::rgb(0xab, 0x46, 0x42)),
+                ..StyleOverride::default()
+            },
+        );
+        states.insert(
+            "critical".to_owned(),
+            StyleOverride {
+                foreground: Some(Rgba::rgb(0xff, 0x55, 0x55)),
+                ..StyleOverride::default()
+            },
+        );
+        Self {
+            font: FontTheme::default(),
+            bar: SurfaceTheme::default(),
+            popup: SurfaceTheme {
+                background: Rgba::rgb(0x22, 0x22, 0x22),
+                border: Rgba::rgb(0x55, 0x55, 0x55),
+                border_width: 1,
+                padding: 10,
+            },
+            module: Style::default(),
+            states,
+            modules: BTreeMap::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Theme {
+    fn validate(&self) -> Result<()> {
+        if self.font.family.trim().is_empty() {
+            bail!("font.family cannot be empty");
+        }
+        if !(6.0..=96.0).contains(&self.font.size) {
+            bail!("font.size must be between 6 and 96 logical pixels");
+        }
+        if self
+            .font
+            .fallbacks
+            .iter()
+            .any(|font| font.trim().is_empty())
+        {
+            bail!("font.fallbacks cannot contain an empty family");
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    pub fn style_for(&self, module: &str, state: &str, local: &StyleOverride) -> Style {
+        let mut style = self.module.clone();
+        if let Some(state_style) = self.states.get(state) {
+            style.apply(state_style);
+        }
+        if let Some(module_style) = self.modules.get(module) {
+            style.apply(module_style);
+        }
+        style.apply(local);
+        style
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct FontTheme {
+    pub family: String,
+    pub fallbacks: Vec<String>,
+    pub size: f32,
+}
+
+impl Default for FontTheme {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            family: "UbuntuMono Nerd Font".to_owned(),
+            fallbacks: vec!["Noto Sans".to_owned(), "Noto Color Emoji".to_owned()],
+            size: 12.0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct SurfaceTheme {
+    pub background: Rgba,
+    pub border: Rgba,
+    pub border_width: u32,
+    pub padding: u32,
+}
+
+impl Default for SurfaceTheme {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            background: Rgba::rgb(0x11, 0x11, 0x11),
+            border: Rgba::TRANSPARENT,
+            border_width: 0,
+            padding: 0,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct Style {
+    pub foreground: Rgba,
+    pub background: Rgba,
+    pub border: Rgba,
+    pub border_width: u32,
+    pub padding_x: u32,
+    pub padding_y: u32,
+    pub margin_x: u32,
+    pub min_width: u32,
+}
+
+impl Default for Style {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            foreground: Rgba::rgb(0xdd, 0xdd, 0xdd),
+            background: Rgba::TRANSPARENT,
+            border: Rgba::TRANSPARENT,
+            border_width: 0,
+            padding_x: 8,
+            padding_y: 0,
+            margin_x: 0,
+            min_width: 1,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Style {
+    fn apply(&mut self, over: &StyleOverride) {
+        if let Some(value) = over.foreground {
+            self.foreground = value;
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = over.background {
+            self.background = value;
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = over.border {
+            self.border = value;
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = over.border_width {
+            self.border_width = value;
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = over.padding_x {
+            self.padding_x = value;
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = over.padding_y {
+            self.padding_y = value;
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = over.margin_x {
+            self.margin_x = value;
+        }
+        if let Some(value) = over.min_width {
+            self.min_width = value;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(default, deny_unknown_fields)]
+pub struct StyleOverride {
+    pub foreground: Option<Rgba>,
+    pub background: Option<Rgba>,
+    pub border: Option<Rgba>,
+    pub border_width: Option<u32>,
+    pub padding_x: Option<u32>,
+    pub padding_y: Option<u32>,
+    pub margin_x: Option<u32>,
+    pub min_width: Option<u32>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Rgba {
+    pub red: u8,
+    pub green: u8,
+    pub blue: u8,
+    pub alpha: u8,
+}
+
+impl Rgba {
+    pub const BLACK: Self = Self::rgb(0, 0, 0);
+    pub const TRANSPARENT: Self = Self::rgba(0, 0, 0, 0);
+
+    pub const fn rgb(red: u8, green: u8, blue: u8) -> Self {
+        Self::rgba(red, green, blue, 0xff)
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::self_named_constructors)]
+    pub const fn rgba(red: u8, green: u8, blue: u8, alpha: u8) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            red,
+            green,
+            blue,
+            alpha,
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn as_premultiplied_bgra(self) -> [u8; 4] {
+        let alpha = u16::from(self.alpha);
+        let premultiply = |channel: u8| ((u16::from(channel) * alpha + 127) / 255) as u8;
+        [
+            premultiply(self.blue),
+            premultiply(self.green),
+            premultiply(self.red),
+            self.alpha,
+        ]
+    }
+}
+
+impl Default for Rgba {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self::TRANSPARENT
+    }
+}
+
+impl FromStr for Rgba {
+    type Err = anyhow::Error;
+
+    fn from_str(value: &str) -> Result<Self> {
+        let hex = value
+            .strip_prefix('#')
+            .ok_or_else(|| anyhow!("color {value:?} must begin with '#'"))?;
+        if !matches!(hex.len(), 6 | 8) {
+            bail!("color {value:?} must use #RRGGBB or #RRGGBBAA");
+        }
+        let parse = |range: std::ops::Range<usize>| {
+            u8::from_str_radix(&hex[range], 16)
+                .with_context(|| format!("invalid hexadecimal color {value:?}"))
+        };
+        Ok(Self {
+            red: parse(0..2)?,
+            green: parse(2..4)?,
+            blue: parse(4..6)?,
+            alpha: if hex.len() == 8 { parse(6..8)? } else { 0xff },
+        })
+    }
+}
+
+impl<'de> Deserialize<'de> for Rgba {
+    fn deserialize<D>(deserializer: D) -> Result<Self, D::Error>
+    where
+        D: Deserializer<'de>,
+    {
+        String::deserialize(deserializer)?
+            .parse()
+            .map_err(serde::de::Error::custom)
+    }
+}
+
+impl fmt::Display for Rgba {
+    fn fmt(&self, formatter: &mut fmt::Formatter<'_>) -> fmt::Result {
+        write!(
+            formatter,
+            "#{:02x}{:02x}{:02x}{:02x}",
+            self.red, self.green, self.blue, self.alpha
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn parses_rgb_and_rgba() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            "#123456".parse::<Rgba>().unwrap(),
+            Rgba::rgba(0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0xff)
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            "#12345678".parse::<Rgba>().unwrap(),
+            Rgba::rgba(0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0x78)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_invalid_color() {
+        assert!("123456".parse::<Rgba>().is_err());
+        assert!("#abcd".parse::<Rgba>().is_err());
+        assert!("#xxxxxx".parse::<Rgba>().is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn parses_durations() {
+        assert_eq!(parse_duration("250ms").unwrap(), Duration::from_millis(250));
+        assert_eq!(parse_duration("2s").unwrap(), Duration::from_secs(2));
+        assert_eq!(parse_duration("3m").unwrap(), Duration::from_secs(180));
+        assert!(parse_duration("0s").is_err());
+        assert!(parse_duration("10").is_err());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/doctor.rs b/src/doctor.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d9b269e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/doctor.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
+use std::{
+    env, fs,
+    path::{Path, PathBuf},
+    process::Command,
+};
+
+use crate::config::ConfigBundle;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum CheckStatus {
+    Pass,
+    Warn,
+    Fail,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct Check {
+    pub status: CheckStatus,
+    pub name: &'static str,
+    pub detail: String,
+}
+
+impl Check {
+    fn pass(name: &'static str, detail: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            status: CheckStatus::Pass,
+            name,
+            detail: detail.into(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn warn(name: &'static str, detail: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            status: CheckStatus::Warn,
+            name,
+            detail: detail.into(),
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn fail(name: &'static str, detail: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            status: CheckStatus::Fail,
+            name,
+            detail: detail.into(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn run(config_path: Option<&Path>) -> Vec<Check> {
+    let mut checks = Vec::new();
+    let bundle = match ConfigBundle::load(config_path) {
+        Ok(bundle) => {
+            checks.push(Check::pass(
+                "configuration",
+                format!("{} is valid", bundle.config_path.display()),
+            ));
+            Some(bundle)
+        }
+        Err(error) => {
+            checks.push(Check::fail("configuration", format!("{error:#}")));
+            None
+        }
+    };
+
+    checks.push(env_check("Wayland display", "WAYLAND_DISPLAY"));
+    checks.push(env_check_any("Sway IPC", &["SWAYSOCK", "I3SOCK"]));
+    checks.push(command_check("Sway", "sway", &["--version"], true));
+    checks.push(command_check(
+        "Network manager UI",
+        "nm-connection-editor",
+        &[],
+        false,
+    ));
+    checks.push(command_check("Audio control UI", "pavucontrol", &[], false));
+    checks.push(command_check("PipeWire control", "wpctl", &[], false));
+    checks.push(command_check(
+        "PipeWire audio events",
+        "pw-dump",
+        &[],
+        false,
+    ));
+    checks.push(dbus_service_check(
+        "NetworkManager D-Bus",
+        "system",
+        "org.freedesktop.NetworkManager",
+        false,
+    ));
+    checks.push(dbus_service_check(
+        "UPower D-Bus",
+        "system",
+        "org.freedesktop.UPower",
+        false,
+    ));
+    checks.push(dbus_service_check(
+        "StatusNotifier watcher",
+        "user",
+        "org.kde.StatusNotifierWatcher",
+        false,
+    ));
+
+    if let Some(bundle) = bundle {
+        checks.push(font_check(&bundle.theme.font.family));
+    }
+
+    checks.push(path_group_check(
+        "battery devices",
+        Path::new("/sys/class/power_supply"),
+        false,
+    ));
+    checks.push(path_group_check(
+        "backlight devices",
+        Path::new("/sys/class/backlight"),
+        false,
+    ));
+    checks.push(path_group_check(
+        "temperature sensors",
+        Path::new("/sys/class/hwmon"),
+        false,
+    ));
+    checks
+}
+
+fn env_check(name: &'static str, variable: &'static str) -> Check {
+    match env::var_os(variable) {
+        Some(value) if !value.is_empty() => {
+            Check::pass(name, format!("{variable}={}", value.to_string_lossy()))
+        }
+        _ => Check::fail(name, format!("{variable} is not set")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn env_check_any(name: &'static str, variables: &[&'static str]) -> Check {
+    variables
+        .iter()
+        .find_map(|variable| {
+            env::var_os(variable)
+                .filter(|value| !value.is_empty())
+                .map(|value| Check::pass(name, format!("{variable}={}", value.to_string_lossy())))
+        })
+        .unwrap_or_else(|| Check::fail(name, format!("none of {} is set", variables.join(", "))))
+}
+
+fn command_check(
+    name: &'static str,
+    command: &'static str,
+    args: &[&str],
+    required: bool,
+) -> Check {
+    let Some(path) = find_command(command) else {
+        return if required {
+            Check::fail(name, format!("{command} was not found in PATH"))
+        } else {
+            Check::warn(
+                name,
+                format!("optional command {command} was not found in PATH"),
+            )
+        };
+    };
+
+    if args.is_empty() {
+        return Check::pass(name, path.display().to_string());
+    }
+    match Command::new(&path).args(args).output() {
+        Ok(output) if output.status.success() => {
+            let version = String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stdout).trim().to_owned();
+            Check::pass(
+                name,
+                if version.is_empty() {
+                    path.display().to_string()
+                } else {
+                    version
+                },
+            )
+        }
+        Ok(output) => Check::warn(
+            name,
+            format!("{} exited with {}", path.display(), output.status),
+        ),
+        Err(error) => Check::warn(name, format!("could not run {}: {error}", path.display())),
+    }
+}
+
+fn find_command(command: &str) -> Option<PathBuf> {
+    let paths = env::var_os("PATH")?;
+    env::split_paths(&paths)
+        .map(|path| path.join(command))
+        .find(|candidate| candidate.is_file())
+}
+
+fn dbus_service_check(
+    name: &'static str,
+    bus: &'static str,
+    service: &'static str,
+    required: bool,
+) -> Check {
+    let Some(busctl) = find_command("busctl") else {
+        return Check::warn(name, "busctl is unavailable; service cannot be checked");
+    };
+    let bus_flag = if bus == "system" {
+        "--system"
+    } else {
+        "--user"
+    };
+    match Command::new(busctl)
+        .args([bus_flag, "--no-pager", "status", service])
+        .output()
+    {
+        Ok(output) if output.status.success() => Check::pass(name, format!("{service} is active")),
+        Ok(_) if required => Check::fail(name, format!("{service} has no owner on the {bus} bus")),
+        Ok(_) => Check::warn(
+            name,
+            if service == "org.kde.StatusNotifierWatcher" {
+                "no watcher is active; Lightbar will provide one".to_owned()
+            } else {
+                format!("{service} has no owner on the {bus} bus")
+            },
+        ),
+        Err(error) => Check::warn(name, format!("could not query {service}: {error}")),
+    }
+}
+
+fn font_check(family: &str) -> Check {
+    let Some(fc_match) = find_command("fc-match") else {
+        return Check::warn(
+            "configured font",
+            "fc-match is unavailable; font cannot be verified",
+        );
+    };
+    match Command::new(fc_match)
+        .args(["-f", "%{family}\n", family])
+        .output()
+    {
+        Ok(output) if output.status.success() => {
+            let matched = String::from_utf8_lossy(&output.stdout)
+                .lines()
+                .next()
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+                .trim()
+                .to_owned();
+            if matched.eq_ignore_ascii_case(family) {
+                Check::pass("configured font", format!("found {matched}"))
+            } else {
+                Check::warn(
+                    "configured font",
+                    format!("requested {family:?}, but fontconfig selected {matched:?}"),
+                )
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(output) => Check::warn(
+            "configured font",
+            format!("fc-match exited with {}", output.status),
+        ),
+        Err(error) => Check::warn(
+            "configured font",
+            format!("could not run fc-match: {error}"),
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+fn path_group_check(name: &'static str, path: &Path, required: bool) -> Check {
+    match fs::read_dir(path) {
+        Ok(entries) => {
+            let count = entries.filter_map(Result::ok).count();
+            if count == 0 {
+                Check::warn(name, format!("{} exists but is empty", path.display()))
+            } else {
+                Check::pass(name, format!("found {count} entries in {}", path.display()))
+            }
+        }
+        Err(error) if required => {
+            Check::fail(name, format!("cannot inspect {}: {error}", path.display()))
+        }
+        Err(error) => Check::warn(name, format!("cannot inspect {}: {error}", path.display())),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn print(checks: &[Check]) {
+    for check in checks {
+        let marker = match check.status {
+            CheckStatus::Pass => "PASS",
+            CheckStatus::Warn => "WARN",
+            CheckStatus::Fail => "FAIL",
+        };
+        println!("{marker:4}  {:20}  {}", check.name, check.detail);
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn has_failures(checks: &[Check]) -> bool {
+    checks.iter().any(|check| check.status == CheckStatus::Fail)
+}
diff --git a/src/format.rs b/src/format.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..245dc94
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/format.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,131 @@
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub enum Value {
+    Text(String),
+    Integer(i64),
+    Number(f64),
+    Boolean(bool),
+}
+
+impl From<&str> for Value {
+    fn from(value: &str) -> Self {
+        Self::Text(value.to_owned())
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<String> for Value {
+    fn from(value: String) -> Self {
+        Self::Text(value)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<i64> for Value {
+    fn from(value: i64) -> Self {
+        Self::Integer(value)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<u8> for Value {
+    fn from(value: u8) -> Self {
+        Self::Integer(i64::from(value))
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<f64> for Value {
+    fn from(value: f64) -> Self {
+        Self::Number(value)
+    }
+}
+
+impl From<bool> for Value {
+    fn from(value: bool) -> Self {
+        Self::Boolean(value)
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn expand(template: &str, values: &BTreeMap<&str, Value>) -> String {
+    let mut rendered = String::with_capacity(template.len());
+    let mut chars = template.char_indices().peekable();
+    while let Some((_, character)) = chars.next() {
+        match character {
+            '{' if chars.peek().is_some_and(|(_, next)| *next == '{') => {
+                chars.next();
+                rendered.push('{');
+            }
+            '}' if chars.peek().is_some_and(|(_, next)| *next == '}') => {
+                chars.next();
+                rendered.push('}');
+            }
+            '{' => {
+                let mut expression = String::new();
+                let mut closed = false;
+                for (_, next) in chars.by_ref() {
+                    if next == '}' {
+                        closed = true;
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    expression.push(next);
+                }
+                if !closed {
+                    rendered.push('{');
+                    rendered.push_str(&expression);
+                    break;
+                }
+                if let Some(value) = render_expression(&expression, values) {
+                    rendered.push_str(&value);
+                } else {
+                    rendered.push('{');
+                    rendered.push_str(&expression);
+                    rendered.push('}');
+                }
+            }
+            other => rendered.push(other),
+        }
+    }
+    rendered
+}
+
+fn render_expression(expression: &str, values: &BTreeMap<&str, Value>) -> Option<String> {
+    let (key, format) = expression
+        .split_once(':')
+        .map_or((expression, None), |(key, format)| (key, Some(format)));
+    let value = values.get(key)?;
+    Some(match (value, format) {
+        (Value::Number(number), Some(format)) => format_number(*number, format)?,
+        (Value::Number(number), None) => number.to_string(),
+        (Value::Integer(number), _) => number.to_string(),
+        (Value::Text(text), _) => text.clone(),
+        (Value::Boolean(boolean), _) => boolean.to_string(),
+    })
+}
+
+fn format_number(number: f64, format: &str) -> Option<String> {
+    let precision = format.strip_prefix('.')?.parse::<usize>().ok()?;
+    if precision > 12 {
+        return None;
+    }
+    Some(format!("{number:.precision$}"))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn expands_named_values_and_precision() {
+        let values = BTreeMap::from([
+            ("name", Value::from("wifi")),
+            ("temperature", Value::from(42.67)),
+        ]);
+        assert_eq!(expand("{name} {temperature:.1}°C", &values), "wifi 42.7°C");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn preserves_unknown_and_unclosed_expressions() {
+        let values = BTreeMap::new();
+        assert_eq!(expand("{missing}", &values), "{missing}");
+        assert_eq!(expand("value {", &values), "value {");
+        assert_eq!(expand("{{ok}}", &values), "{ok}");
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/lib.rs b/src/lib.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..356886e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/lib.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+pub mod app;
+pub mod cli;
+pub mod config;
+pub mod doctor;
+pub mod format;
+pub mod model;
+pub mod modules;
+pub mod render;
+
+pub const APP_NAME: &str = "lightbar";
diff --git a/src/main.rs b/src/main.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4534ddb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/main.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+use std::{env, process::ExitCode};
+
+use anyhow::Result;
+use clap::Parser;
+use lightbar::{
+    cli::{Cli, Command},
+    config::ConfigBundle,
+    doctor,
+};
+use tracing_subscriber::EnvFilter;
+
+fn main() -> ExitCode {
+    let cli = Cli::parse();
+    init_logging(&cli);
+    match run(cli) {
+        Ok(()) => ExitCode::SUCCESS,
+        Err(error) => {
+            tracing::error!(error = %format_args!("{error:#}"), "lightbar failed");
+            eprintln!("lightbar: {error:#}");
+            ExitCode::from(1)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn init_logging(cli: &Cli) {
+    let fallback = format!("lightbar={}", cli.log_level);
+    let filter = env::var("LIGHTBAR_LOG")
+        .or_else(|_| env::var("RUST_LOG"))
+        .unwrap_or(fallback);
+    tracing_subscriber::fmt()
+        .with_env_filter(EnvFilter::new(filter))
+        .with_target(false)
+        .compact()
+        .init();
+}
+
+fn run(cli: Cli) -> Result<()> {
+    match cli.command {
+        Some(Command::CheckConfig) => {
+            let bundle = ConfigBundle::load(cli.config.as_deref())?;
+            println!(
+                "valid: {} (theme {})",
+                bundle.config_path.display(),
+                bundle.theme_path.display()
+            );
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        Some(Command::Doctor) => {
+            let checks = doctor::run(cli.config.as_deref());
+            doctor::print(&checks);
+            if doctor::has_failures(&checks) {
+                anyhow::bail!("one or more required checks failed");
+            }
+            Ok(())
+        }
+        None => {
+            let bundle = ConfigBundle::load(cli.config.as_deref())?;
+            tracing::info!(
+                config = %bundle.config_path.display(),
+                theme = %bundle.theme_path.display(),
+                bar_id = ?cli.bar_id,
+                "configuration loaded"
+            );
+            lightbar::app::run(bundle, cli.bar_id)
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/model.rs b/src/model.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..11f0d49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/model.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,360 @@
+use std::collections::BTreeMap;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq)]
+pub struct ModuleSnapshot {
+    pub segments: Vec<Segment>,
+    pub tooltip: Option<String>,
+    pub popup: Option<PopupModel>,
+    pub visible: bool,
+    pub stale: bool,
+}
+
+impl ModuleSnapshot {
+    pub fn text(text: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            segments: vec![Segment::new(text)],
+            visible: true,
+            ..Self::default()
+        }
+    }
+
+    pub fn unavailable(placeholder: Option<&str>) -> Self {
+        placeholder.map_or_else(Self::default, |text| {
+            let mut snapshot = Self::text(text);
+            snapshot.segments[0].state = "disabled".to_owned();
+            snapshot
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn with_state(mut self, state: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        if let Some(segment) = self.segments.first_mut() {
+            segment.state = state.into();
+        }
+        self
+    }
+
+    pub fn for_output(&self, output: &str) -> Self {
+        let mut filtered = self.clone();
+        filtered.segments.retain(|segment| {
+            segment
+                .output
+                .as_deref()
+                .is_none_or(|candidate| candidate == output)
+        });
+        filtered.visible &= !filtered.segments.is_empty();
+        filtered
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Segment {
+    pub id: Option<String>,
+    pub text: String,
+    pub state: String,
+    pub output: Option<String>,
+    pub icon: Option<IconPixmap>,
+}
+
+impl Segment {
+    pub fn new(text: impl Into<String>) -> Self {
+        Self {
+            id: None,
+            text: text.into(),
+            state: "normal".to_owned(),
+            output: None,
+            icon: None,
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// A small premultiplied BGRA bitmap, ready to blend into an ARGB8888
+/// shared-memory Wayland buffer.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub struct IconPixmap {
+    pub width: u32,
+    pub height: u32,
+    pub pixels: Vec<u8>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct PopupModel {
+    pub title: String,
+    pub content: PopupContent,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub enum PopupContent {
+    Rows(Vec<PopupRow>),
+    Calendar(CalendarModel),
+    Slider(SliderModel),
+    Audio(AudioModel),
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Default, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum AudioView {
+    #[default]
+    Mixer,
+    Outputs,
+    Inputs,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct AudioDevice {
+    pub id: u32,
+    pub name: String,
+    pub description: String,
+    pub input: bool,
+    pub is_default: bool,
+    pub volume: Option<f64>,
+    pub muted: Option<bool>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default, PartialEq)]
+pub struct AudioModel {
+    pub devices: Vec<AudioDevice>,
+    pub view: AudioView,
+    pub focused: Option<String>,
+    pub offset: usize,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct AudioControl {
+    pub id: Option<String>,
+    pub label: String,
+    pub slider: Option<f64>,
+    pub active: bool,
+}
+
+impl AudioControl {
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn height(&self) -> f64 {
+        if self.slider.is_some() { 54.0 } else { 32.0 }
+    }
+}
+
+impl AudioModel {
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn default_device(&self, input: bool) -> Option<&AudioDevice> {
+        self.devices
+            .iter()
+            .find(|device| device.input == input && device.is_default)
+    }
+
+    #[must_use]
+    pub fn controls(&self) -> Vec<AudioControl> {
+        let mut controls = Vec::new();
+        if self.view == AudioView::Mixer {
+            for (input, label, selector) in [
+                (false, "Output", "audio-outputs"),
+                (true, "Microphone", "audio-inputs"),
+            ] {
+                let device = self.default_device(input);
+                controls.push(AudioControl {
+                    id: None,
+                    label: label.to_owned(),
+                    slider: None,
+                    active: false,
+                });
+                controls.push(AudioControl {
+                    id: Some(selector.to_owned()),
+                    label: device.map_or_else(
+                        || "No default device · Choose…".to_owned(),
+                        |device| format!("{}  ›", device.description),
+                    ),
+                    slider: None,
+                    active: false,
+                });
+                if let Some(device) = device {
+                    if let Some(volume) = device.volume {
+                        controls.push(AudioControl {
+                            id: Some(format!("audio-volume:{}", device.id)),
+                            label: format!(
+                                "Volume  {volume:.0}%{}",
+                                if device.muted == Some(true) {
+                                    " · Muted"
+                                } else {
+                                    ""
+                                }
+                            ),
+                            slider: Some(volume),
+                            active: false,
+                        });
+                    }
+                    if let Some(muted) = device.muted {
+                        controls.push(AudioControl {
+                            id: Some(format!("audio-mute:{}", device.id)),
+                            label: if muted { "Unmute" } else { "Mute" }.to_owned(),
+                            slider: None,
+                            active: muted,
+                        });
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            controls.push(AudioControl {
+                id: Some("open-settings".to_owned()),
+                label: "Open pavucontrol…".to_owned(),
+                slider: None,
+                active: false,
+            });
+        } else {
+            controls.push(AudioControl {
+                id: Some("audio-back".to_owned()),
+                label: "‹ Back to volume controls".to_owned(),
+                slider: None,
+                active: false,
+            });
+            let input = self.view == AudioView::Inputs;
+            controls.push(AudioControl {
+                id: None,
+                label: if input {
+                    "Choose default microphone"
+                } else {
+                    "Choose default output"
+                }
+                .to_owned(),
+                slider: None,
+                active: false,
+            });
+            for device in self.devices.iter().filter(|device| device.input == input) {
+                controls.push(AudioControl {
+                    id: Some(format!("audio-default:{}", device.id)),
+                    label: format!(
+                        "{}{}",
+                        if device.is_default { "✓ " } else { "" },
+                        device.description
+                    ),
+                    slider: None,
+                    active: device.is_default,
+                });
+            }
+            if controls.len() == 2 {
+                controls.push(AudioControl {
+                    id: None,
+                    label: "No devices available".to_owned(),
+                    slider: None,
+                    active: false,
+                });
+            }
+        }
+        controls
+    }
+
+    pub fn set_view(&mut self, view: AudioView) {
+        self.view = view;
+        self.offset = 0;
+        self.focused = None;
+    }
+
+    pub fn move_focus(&mut self, backwards: bool, available_height: f64) {
+        let controls = self.controls();
+        let indices: Vec<_> = controls
+            .iter()
+            .enumerate()
+            .filter_map(|(i, c)| c.id.as_ref().map(|_| i))
+            .collect();
+        if indices.is_empty() {
+            return;
+        }
+        let current = indices.iter().position(|&i| controls[i].id == self.focused);
+        let next = match (current, backwards) {
+            (Some(i), true) => (i + indices.len() - 1) % indices.len(),
+            (Some(i), false) => (i + 1) % indices.len(),
+            (None, true) => indices.len() - 1,
+            (None, false) => 0,
+        };
+        let index = indices[next];
+        self.focused.clone_from(&controls[index].id);
+        self.offset = self.offset.min(index);
+        while self.offset < index
+            && controls[self.offset..=index]
+                .iter()
+                .map(AudioControl::height)
+                .sum::<f64>()
+                > available_height
+        {
+            self.offset += 1;
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct PopupRow {
+    pub id: Option<String>,
+    pub label: String,
+    pub detail: Option<String>,
+    pub state: String,
+    pub enabled: bool,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct CalendarModel {
+    pub year: i32,
+    pub month: u32,
+    pub selected_day: u32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct SliderModel {
+    pub label: String,
+    pub value: f64,
+    pub minimum: f64,
+    pub maximum: f64,
+    pub muted: bool,
+    pub detail_rows: Vec<PopupRow>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct ModuleEvent {
+    pub module: String,
+    pub snapshot: ModuleSnapshot,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct ModuleStore {
+    snapshots: BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+}
+
+impl ModuleStore {
+    pub fn get(&self, module: &str) -> Option<&ModuleSnapshot> {
+        self.snapshots.get(module)
+    }
+
+    pub fn update(&mut self, event: ModuleEvent) -> bool {
+        if self.snapshots.get(&event.module) == Some(&event.snapshot) {
+            return false;
+        }
+        self.snapshots.insert(event.module, event.snapshot);
+        true
+    }
+
+    pub fn insert(&mut self, module: impl Into<String>, snapshot: ModuleSnapshot) {
+        self.snapshots.insert(module.into(), snapshot);
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum PointerButton {
+    Left,
+    Middle,
+    Right,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+pub enum ScrollDirection {
+    Up,
+    Down,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub enum Interaction {
+    Click {
+        module: String,
+        segment: Option<String>,
+        button: PointerButton,
+    },
+    Scroll {
+        module: String,
+        segment: Option<String>,
+        direction: ScrollDirection,
+    },
+}
diff --git a/src/modules/audio.rs b/src/modules/audio.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..337c434
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/modules/audio.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,812 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::BTreeMap,
+    process::Stdio,
+    sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread::{self, JoinHandle},
+    time::Duration,
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, bail};
+use calloop::channel::Sender;
+use serde_json::Value as Json;
+use tokio::{io::AsyncReadExt, process::Command, sync::mpsc};
+
+use crate::{
+    config::{AudioModule, UnavailableBehavior},
+    format::{Value, expand},
+    model::{
+        AudioDevice, AudioModel, ModuleEvent, ModuleSnapshot, PopupContent, PopupModel, Segment,
+    },
+};
+
+const MAX_FRAME_BYTES: usize = 8 * 1024 * 1024;
+const MAX_OBJECTS: usize = 4096;
+const COMMAND_TIMEOUT: Duration = Duration::from_secs(2);
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum AudioTarget {
+    DefaultOutput,
+    DefaultInput,
+    Device(u32),
+}
+
+impl AudioTarget {
+    fn argument(self) -> String {
+        match self {
+            Self::DefaultOutput => "@DEFAULT_AUDIO_SINK@".to_owned(),
+            Self::DefaultInput => "@DEFAULT_AUDIO_SOURCE@".to_owned(),
+            Self::Device(id) => id.to_string(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Copy)]
+pub enum AudioAction {
+    SetVolume(u32, f64),
+    ChangeVolume(AudioTarget, i16),
+    ToggleMute(AudioTarget),
+    SetDefault(u32),
+}
+
+impl AudioAction {
+    fn arguments(self) -> Vec<String> {
+        match self {
+            Self::SetVolume(id, percent) => vec![
+                "set-volume".into(),
+                id.to_string(),
+                format!("{:.3}", percent.clamp(0.0, 150.0) / 100.0),
+            ],
+            Self::ChangeVolume(target, step) => vec![
+                "set-volume".into(),
+                "-l".into(),
+                "1.5".into(),
+                target.argument(),
+                format!(
+                    "{}%{}",
+                    step.unsigned_abs(),
+                    if step < 0 { "-" } else { "+" }
+                ),
+            ],
+            Self::ToggleMute(target) => vec!["set-mute".into(), target.argument(), "toggle".into()],
+            Self::SetDefault(id) => vec!["set-default".into(), id.to_string()],
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn spawn(
+    name: String,
+    settings: AudioModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+) -> (JoinHandle<()>, mpsc::Sender<AudioAction>) {
+    let (actions, mut requests) = mpsc::channel(32);
+    let worker = thread::Builder::new().name(format!("lightbar-audio-{name}")).spawn(move || {
+        let runtime = match tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread().enable_all().build() {
+            Ok(runtime) => runtime,
+            Err(error) => {
+                tracing::error!(module = %name, %error, "could not start audio runtime");
+                return;
+            }
+        };
+        runtime.block_on(async {
+            let mut failures = 0_u32;
+            while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                let result = monitor(&name, &settings, &sender, &stop, &mut requests, &mut failures).await;
+                if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) { break; }
+                if let Err(error) = result {
+                    tracing::warn!(module = %name, %error, "audio monitor stopped; reconnecting");
+                }
+                let placeholder = match settings.common.unavailable {
+                    UnavailableBehavior::Hide => None,
+                    UnavailableBehavior::Placeholder => Some("Audio unavailable"),
+                };
+                if sender.send(ModuleEvent { module: name.clone(), snapshot: ModuleSnapshot::unavailable(placeholder) }).is_err() { break; }
+                // Commands queued for a disconnected generation must not affect a new device.
+                while requests.try_recv().is_ok() {
+                    tracing::warn!(module = %name, "discarded audio action after disconnect");
+                }
+                failures = failures.saturating_add(1);
+                let deadline = tokio::time::Instant::now() + super::process::backoff(failures);
+                while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) && tokio::time::Instant::now() < deadline {
+                    tokio::select! {
+                        () = tokio::time::sleep_until(deadline) => break,
+                        action = requests.recv() => {
+                            if action.is_none() { return; }
+                            tracing::warn!(module = %name, "discarded audio action while disconnected");
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        });
+    }).expect("audio worker thread");
+    (worker, actions)
+}
+
+async fn monitor(
+    name: &str,
+    settings: &AudioModule,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: &AtomicBool,
+    requests: &mut mpsc::Receiver<AudioAction>,
+    failures: &mut u32,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut child = Command::new("pw-dump")
+        .args(["--monitor", "--no-colors"])
+        .stdin(Stdio::null())
+        .stdout(Stdio::piped())
+        .stderr(Stdio::inherit())
+        .kill_on_drop(true)
+        .spawn()
+        .context("could not start pw-dump")?;
+    let mut stdout = child
+        .stdout
+        .take()
+        .context("pw-dump stdout was not piped")?;
+    let result = async {
+        let mut frames = JsonFrames::default();
+        let mut state = AudioState::default();
+        let mut last = None;
+        let mut buffer = [0_u8; 8192];
+        while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            tokio::select! {
+                read = stdout.read(&mut buffer) => {
+                    let read = read.context("could not read pw-dump events")?;
+                    if read == 0 { bail!("pw-dump event stream closed"); }
+                    for batch in frames.push(&buffer[..read])? {
+                        if state.apply(batch)? {
+                            // pw-dump's metadata deltas omit deleted keys. Re-read the
+                            // default metadata to distinguish a removal from no change.
+                            let defaults = read_defaults().await?;
+                            state.replace_defaults(defaults)?;
+                        }
+                        let snapshot = state.snapshot(settings);
+                        if last.as_ref() != Some(&snapshot) {
+                            sender.send(ModuleEvent { module: name.to_owned(), snapshot: snapshot.clone() })
+                                .map_err(|_| anyhow::anyhow!("UI event channel closed"))?;
+                            last = Some(snapshot);
+                        }
+                        *failures = 0;
+                    }
+                }
+                action = requests.recv() => {
+                    let Some(action) = action else { break; };
+                    if let Err(error) = run_action(action).await { tracing::warn!(module = name, %error, "audio control failed"); }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }.await;
+    // Always reap the monitor, including malformed input and closed UI channels.
+    if child.try_wait()?.is_none() {
+        child.kill().await.context("could not stop pw-dump")?;
+    }
+    child.wait().await.context("could not reap pw-dump")?;
+    result
+}
+
+async fn run_action(action: AudioAction) -> Result<()> {
+    let args = action.arguments();
+    let mut child = Command::new("wpctl")
+        .args(&args)
+        .stdin(Stdio::null())
+        .stdout(Stdio::null())
+        .stderr(Stdio::inherit())
+        .kill_on_drop(true)
+        .spawn()
+        .with_context(|| format!("could not run wpctl {}", args[0]))?;
+    if let Ok(status) = tokio::time::timeout(COMMAND_TIMEOUT, child.wait()).await {
+        let status = status.context("could not wait for wpctl")?;
+        if !status.success() {
+            bail!("wpctl {} exited with {status}", args[0]);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    } else {
+        child
+            .kill()
+            .await
+            .context("could not stop timed-out wpctl")?;
+        child.wait().await.context("could not reap wpctl")?;
+        bail!("wpctl {} timed out", args[0]);
+    }
+}
+
+async fn read_defaults() -> Result<Vec<Json>> {
+    let mut child = Command::new("pw-dump")
+        .args(["--no-colors", "default"])
+        .stdin(Stdio::null())
+        .stdout(Stdio::piped())
+        .stderr(Stdio::inherit())
+        .kill_on_drop(true)
+        .spawn()
+        .context("could not read default audio metadata")?;
+    let stdout = child
+        .stdout
+        .take()
+        .context("metadata stdout was not piped")?;
+    let operation = async {
+        let mut bytes = Vec::new();
+        stdout
+            .take(MAX_FRAME_BYTES as u64 + 1)
+            .read_to_end(&mut bytes)
+            .await?;
+        if bytes.len() > MAX_FRAME_BYTES {
+            bail!("default audio metadata exceeded the size limit");
+        }
+        let status = child.wait().await?;
+        if !status.success() {
+            bail!("default audio metadata command exited with {status}");
+        }
+        serde_json::from_slice(&bytes).context("invalid default audio metadata")
+    };
+    let result = tokio::time::timeout(COMMAND_TIMEOUT, operation).await;
+    if child.try_wait()?.is_none() {
+        child
+            .kill()
+            .await
+            .context("could not stop audio metadata command")?;
+    }
+    child
+        .wait()
+        .await
+        .context("could not reap audio metadata command")?;
+    result.context("default audio metadata query timed out")?
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct JsonFrames {
+    bytes: Vec<u8>,
+    depth: usize,
+    quoted: bool,
+    escaped: bool,
+}
+
+impl JsonFrames {
+    fn push(&mut self, bytes: &[u8]) -> Result<Vec<Vec<Json>>> {
+        let mut batches = Vec::new();
+        for &byte in bytes {
+            if self.bytes.is_empty() {
+                if byte.is_ascii_whitespace() {
+                    continue;
+                }
+                if byte != b'[' {
+                    bail!("pw-dump event must be a JSON array");
+                }
+            }
+            if self.bytes.len() >= MAX_FRAME_BYTES {
+                bail!("pw-dump event exceeded {MAX_FRAME_BYTES} bytes");
+            }
+            self.bytes.push(byte);
+            if self.quoted {
+                if self.escaped {
+                    self.escaped = false;
+                } else if byte == b'\\' {
+                    self.escaped = true;
+                } else if byte == b'"' {
+                    self.quoted = false;
+                }
+            } else {
+                match byte {
+                    b'"' => self.quoted = true,
+                    b'[' | b'{' => self.depth += 1,
+                    b']' | b'}' => {
+                        self.depth = self
+                            .depth
+                            .checked_sub(1)
+                            .context("unbalanced pw-dump JSON")?;
+                        if self.depth == 0 {
+                            batches.push(
+                                serde_json::from_slice(&self.bytes)
+                                    .context("invalid pw-dump JSON")?,
+                            );
+                            self.bytes.clear();
+                        }
+                    }
+                    _ => {}
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(batches)
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Default)]
+struct AudioState {
+    objects: BTreeMap<u32, Json>,
+    metadata_id: Option<u32>,
+    default_output: Option<String>,
+    default_input: Option<String>,
+}
+
+impl AudioState {
+    fn apply(&mut self, batch: Vec<Json>) -> Result<bool> {
+        let mut metadata_changed = false;
+        for object in batch {
+            let id = object["id"]
+                .as_u64()
+                .and_then(|id| u32::try_from(id).ok())
+                .context("pw-dump object has no valid id")?;
+            if object.get("info").is_some_and(Json::is_null) {
+                self.objects.remove(&id);
+                if self.metadata_id == Some(id) {
+                    self.metadata_id = None;
+                    self.default_output = None;
+                    self.default_input = None;
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            if object["props"]["metadata.name"] == "default" || self.metadata_id == Some(id) {
+                metadata_changed = true;
+                self.metadata_id = Some(id);
+                if let Some(entries) = object["metadata"].as_array() {
+                    for entry in entries {
+                        if entry["subject"].as_u64() != Some(0) {
+                            continue;
+                        }
+                        let target = match entry["key"].as_str() {
+                            Some("default.audio.sink") => &mut self.default_output,
+                            Some("default.audio.source") => &mut self.default_input,
+                            _ => continue,
+                        };
+                        *target = entry["value"]["name"].as_str().map(str::to_owned);
+                    }
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            let class = object["info"]["props"]["media.class"].as_str();
+            if matches!(
+                class,
+                Some("Audio/Sink" | "Audio/Source" | "Audio/Source/Virtual" | "Audio/Device")
+            ) || self.objects.contains_key(&id)
+            {
+                let stored = self
+                    .objects
+                    .entry(id)
+                    .or_insert_with(|| serde_json::json!({}));
+                // Node properties are complete; parameter keys are incremental.
+                if let Some(info) = object["info"].as_object() {
+                    if stored.get("info").is_none() {
+                        stored["info"] = serde_json::json!({});
+                    }
+                    if let Some(props) = info.get("props") {
+                        stored["info"]["props"] = props.clone();
+                    }
+                    if let Some(params) = info.get("params").and_then(Json::as_object) {
+                        if stored["info"].get("params").is_none() {
+                            stored["info"]["params"] = serde_json::json!({});
+                        }
+                        for (key, value) in params {
+                            stored["info"]["params"][key] = value.clone();
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            if self.objects.len() > MAX_OBJECTS {
+                bail!("too many audio objects");
+            }
+        }
+        Ok(metadata_changed)
+    }
+
+    fn replace_defaults(&mut self, snapshot: Vec<Json>) -> Result<()> {
+        self.default_output = None;
+        self.default_input = None;
+        self.metadata_id = None;
+        self.apply(snapshot)?;
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    fn devices(&self) -> Vec<AudioDevice> {
+        let mut devices = Vec::new();
+        for (&id, object) in &self.objects {
+            let props = &object["info"]["props"];
+            let input = match props["media.class"].as_str() {
+                Some("Audio/Sink") => false,
+                Some("Audio/Source" | "Audio/Source/Virtual") => true,
+                _ => continue,
+            };
+            let Some(name) = props["node.name"].as_str() else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            let description = props["node.description"]
+                .as_str()
+                .or_else(|| props["node.nick"].as_str())
+                .unwrap_or(name);
+            let route_volume = number(&props["device.id"])
+                .and_then(|id| self.objects.get(&id))
+                .and_then(|device| device["info"]["params"]["Route"].as_array())
+                .and_then(|routes| {
+                    routes.iter().find(|route| {
+                        number(&route["device"]) == number(&props["card.profile.device"])
+                            && number(&route["device"]).is_some()
+                    })
+                })
+                .and_then(|route| volume(&route["props"]));
+            let node_volume = || {
+                object["info"]["params"]["Props"]
+                    .as_array()
+                    .and_then(|params| params.iter().find_map(volume))
+            };
+            let level = route_volume.or_else(node_volume);
+            let default = if input {
+                &self.default_input
+            } else {
+                &self.default_output
+            };
+            devices.push(AudioDevice {
+                id,
+                name: name.to_owned(),
+                description: description.to_owned(),
+                input,
+                is_default: default.as_deref() == Some(name),
+                volume: level.map(|(volume, _)| volume),
+                muted: level.map(|(_, muted)| muted),
+            });
+        }
+        devices.sort_by(|a, b| {
+            a.input
+                .cmp(&b.input)
+                .then_with(|| a.description.cmp(&b.description))
+                .then_with(|| a.name.cmp(&b.name))
+        });
+        devices
+    }
+
+    fn snapshot(&self, settings: &AudioModule) -> ModuleSnapshot {
+        let model = AudioModel {
+            devices: self.devices(),
+            ..AudioModel::default()
+        };
+        let mut snapshot = ModuleSnapshot {
+            visible: true,
+            ..ModuleSnapshot::default()
+        };
+        let mut descriptions = Vec::new();
+        for (input, id, label) in [(false, "output", "Output"), (true, "input", "Microphone")] {
+            let device = model.default_device(input);
+            let mut segment = Segment::new(format!("{label} N/A"));
+            segment.id = Some(id.to_owned());
+            if let Some(device) = device {
+                let format = match (input, device.muted == Some(true)) {
+                    (false, false) => &settings.format,
+                    (false, true) => &settings.muted_format,
+                    (true, false) => &settings.microphone_format,
+                    (true, true) => &settings.microphone_muted_format,
+                };
+                segment.text = expand(
+                    format,
+                    &BTreeMap::from([
+                        (
+                            "volume",
+                            device
+                                .volume
+                                .map_or_else(|| Value::from("N/A"), Value::from),
+                        ),
+                        ("device", Value::from(device.description.clone())),
+                        ("name", Value::from(device.name.clone())),
+                    ]),
+                );
+                descriptions.push(format!(
+                    "{label}: {} · {}{}",
+                    device.description,
+                    device.volume.map_or_else(
+                        || "Volume unavailable".to_owned(),
+                        |volume| format!("{volume:.0}%")
+                    ),
+                    if device.muted == Some(true) {
+                        " · Muted"
+                    } else {
+                        ""
+                    }
+                ));
+            } else {
+                descriptions.push(format!("{label}: no default device"));
+            }
+            if device.is_none_or(|device| device.volume.is_none() || device.muted == Some(true)) {
+                "disabled".clone_into(&mut segment.state);
+            }
+            snapshot.segments.push(segment);
+        }
+        snapshot.tooltip = Some(descriptions.join("\n"));
+        snapshot.popup = Some(PopupModel {
+            title: "Audio".to_owned(),
+            content: PopupContent::Audio(model),
+        });
+        snapshot
+    }
+}
+
+fn number(value: &Json) -> Option<u32> {
+    value
+        .as_u64()
+        .and_then(|value| u32::try_from(value).ok())
+        .or_else(|| value.as_str()?.parse().ok())
+}
+
+fn volume(props: &Json) -> Option<(f64, bool)> {
+    let muted = props["mute"].as_bool()?;
+    let linear = props["channelVolumes"]
+        .as_array()
+        .and_then(|channels| channels.first())
+        .and_then(Json::as_f64)
+        .or_else(|| props["volume"].as_f64())?;
+    // WirePlumber exposes the first channel on a cubic scale, including route volume.
+    (linear.is_finite() && linear >= 0.0).then(|| ((linear.cbrt() * 100.0).round(), muted))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+    use serde_json::json;
+
+    fn fixture() -> AudioState {
+        let mut state = AudioState::default();
+        state
+            .apply(serde_json::from_str(include_str!("../../tests/fixtures/audio.json")).unwrap())
+            .unwrap();
+        state
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn reports_actual_defaults_route_volume_and_independent_mute() {
+        let state = fixture();
+        let snapshot = state.snapshot(&AudioModule::default());
+        let PopupContent::Audio(audio) = snapshot.popup.unwrap().content else {
+            panic!("audio popup missing");
+        };
+        assert_eq!(
+            audio.devices.len(),
+            3,
+            "application streams are not devices"
+        );
+        let output = audio.default_device(false).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            (output.id, output.volume, output.muted),
+            (10, Some(50.0), Some(false))
+        );
+        let input = audio.default_device(true).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            (input.id, input.volume, input.muted),
+            (11, Some(80.0), Some(true))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.segments[0].state, "normal");
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.segments[1].state, "disabled");
+        assert!(
+            snapshot
+                .tooltip
+                .unwrap()
+                .contains("USB Microphone · 80% · Muted")
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn follows_external_defaults_and_keeps_other_endpoint() {
+        let mut state = fixture();
+        state.apply(vec![json!({"id":1,"metadata":[{"subject":0,"key":"default.audio.sink","value":{"name":"headphones"}}]})]).unwrap();
+        let devices = state.devices();
+        assert!(
+            devices
+                .iter()
+                .any(|device| device.id == 12 && device.is_default)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            devices
+                .iter()
+                .any(|device| device.id == 11 && device.is_default)
+        );
+        state.apply(vec![json!({"id":11,"info":null})]).unwrap();
+        let snapshot = state.snapshot(&AudioModule::default());
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.segments[1].text, "Microphone N/A");
+        let PopupContent::Audio(audio) = snapshot.popup.unwrap().content else {
+            panic!();
+        };
+        assert!(audio.default_device(false).is_some());
+        assert!(audio.default_device(true).is_none());
+        assert!(
+            !audio
+                .controls()
+                .iter()
+                .any(|control| control.id.as_deref() == Some("audio-mute:11"))
+        );
+        state.apply(vec![json!({"id":1,"info":null})]).unwrap();
+        assert!(!state.devices().iter().any(|device| device.is_default));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn removing_a_default_clears_only_that_endpoint() {
+        let mut state = fixture();
+        assert!(state.apply(vec![json!({"id":1,"metadata":[]})]).unwrap());
+        state
+            .replace_defaults(vec![
+                json!({"id":1,"props":{"metadata.name":"default"},"metadata":[
+                    {"subject":0,"key":"default.audio.sink","value":{"name":"speakers"}}
+                ]}),
+            ])
+            .unwrap();
+        let devices = state.devices();
+        assert!(
+            devices
+                .iter()
+                .any(|device| device.id == 10 && device.is_default)
+        );
+        assert!(
+            !devices
+                .iter()
+                .any(|device| device.input && device.is_default)
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn preserves_final_event_in_a_burst_and_handles_partial_parameters() {
+        let mut frames = JsonFrames::default();
+        let mut state = fixture();
+        let stream = concat!(
+            "[{\"id\":11,\"info\":{\"params\":{\"Props\":[{\"mute\":false,\"channelVolumes\":[0.001]}]}}}]\n",
+            "[{\"id\":11,\"info\":{\"params\":{\"Props\":[{\"mute\":false,\"channelVolumes\":[0.729]}]}}}]\n"
+        );
+        for chunk in stream.as_bytes().chunks(7) {
+            for batch in frames.push(chunk).unwrap() {
+                state.apply(batch).unwrap();
+            }
+        }
+        let microphone = state
+            .devices()
+            .into_iter()
+            .find(|device| device.id == 11)
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(
+            (microphone.volume, microphone.muted),
+            (Some(90.0), Some(false))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(microphone.description, "USB Microphone");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn stream_parser_handles_escaped_names_and_limits() {
+        let data = json!([{"id":1,"text":"Device [USB] \"name\" \\ test"}]).to_string();
+        let mut frames = JsonFrames::default();
+        let mut batches = Vec::new();
+        for byte in data.as_bytes() {
+            batches.extend(frames.push(&[*byte]).unwrap());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(batches.len(), 1);
+        assert_eq!(batches[0][0]["text"], "Device [USB] \"name\" \\ test");
+        assert!(JsonFrames::default().push(b"not json").is_err());
+        assert!(JsonFrames::default().push(b"[{broken}]").is_err());
+        let mut oversized = JsonFrames::default();
+        oversized.push(b"[\"").unwrap();
+        assert!(oversized.push(&vec![b'x'; MAX_FRAME_BYTES]).is_err());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn volume_keeps_overamplification_and_distinguishes_silence_from_mute() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            volume(&json!({"mute":false,"channelVolumes":[0.0]})),
+            Some((0.0, false))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            volume(&json!({"mute":true,"channelVolumes":[8.0]})),
+            Some((200.0, true))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            volume(&json!({"mute":false,"volume":0.125})),
+            Some((50.0, false))
+        );
+        assert_eq!(volume(&json!({"mute":false,"channelVolumes":[-1.0]})), None);
+        assert_eq!(volume(&json!({"channelVolumes":[1.0]})), None);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn audio_commands_target_the_selected_endpoint_and_limit_volume() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            AudioAction::ToggleMute(AudioTarget::DefaultInput).arguments(),
+            ["set-mute", "@DEFAULT_AUDIO_SOURCE@", "toggle"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            AudioAction::ChangeVolume(AudioTarget::DefaultOutput, 7).arguments(),
+            ["set-volume", "-l", "1.5", "@DEFAULT_AUDIO_SINK@", "7%+"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            AudioAction::ChangeVolume(AudioTarget::Device(11), -7).arguments(),
+            ["set-volume", "-l", "1.5", "11", "7%-"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            AudioAction::SetDefault(12).arguments(),
+            ["set-default", "12"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            AudioAction::SetVolume(11, 180.0).arguments(),
+            ["set-volume", "11", "1.500"]
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            AudioAction::SetVolume(11, -10.0).arguments(),
+            ["set-volume", "11", "0.000"]
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn custom_formats_include_names_and_numeric_volume() {
+        let settings = AudioModule {
+            format: "{device}: {volume:.1}%".to_owned(),
+            microphone_muted_format: "{name}: muted at {volume}%".to_owned(),
+            ..AudioModule::default()
+        };
+        let snapshot = fixture().snapshot(&settings);
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.segments[0].text, "Desktop Speakers: 50.0%");
+        assert_eq!(snapshot.segments[1].text, "microphone: muted at 80%");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    #[ignore = "requires a running PipeWire/WirePlumber session; read-only"]
+    fn live_pipewire_matches_wpctl_and_worker_stops_when_idle() {
+        let output = std::process::Command::new("pw-dump")
+            .arg("--no-colors")
+            .output()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert!(output.status.success());
+        let mut state = AudioState::default();
+        state
+            .apply(serde_json::from_slice(&output.stdout).unwrap())
+            .unwrap();
+        let devices = state.devices();
+        for target in [AudioTarget::DefaultOutput, AudioTarget::DefaultInput] {
+            let output = std::process::Command::new("wpctl")
+                .args(["inspect", &target.argument()])
+                .output()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(output.status.success());
+            let text = String::from_utf8(output.stdout).unwrap();
+            let id: u32 = text
+                .split_whitespace()
+                .nth(1)
+                .unwrap()
+                .trim_end_matches(',')
+                .parse()
+                .unwrap();
+            let device = devices.iter().find(|device| device.id == id).unwrap();
+            assert!(device.is_default);
+            let output = std::process::Command::new("wpctl")
+                .args(["get-volume", &target.argument()])
+                .output()
+                .unwrap();
+            assert!(output.status.success());
+            let text = String::from_utf8(output.stdout).unwrap();
+            let percent = (text
+                .split_whitespace()
+                .nth(1)
+                .unwrap()
+                .parse::<f64>()
+                .unwrap()
+                * 100.0)
+                .round();
+            assert_eq!(device.volume, Some(percent));
+            assert_eq!(device.muted, Some(text.contains("[MUTED]")));
+        }
+        let (sender, receiver) = calloop::channel::channel();
+        let stop = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let (worker, actions) = spawn(
+            "audio-test".to_owned(),
+            AudioModule::default(),
+            sender,
+            Arc::clone(&stop),
+        );
+        let deadline = std::time::Instant::now() + Duration::from_secs(5);
+        let first_event = loop {
+            if let Ok(event) = receiver.try_recv() {
+                break Some(event);
+            }
+            if std::time::Instant::now() >= deadline {
+                break None;
+            }
+            thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(10));
+        };
+        stop.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        drop(actions);
+        let start = std::time::Instant::now();
+        worker.join().unwrap();
+        assert!(start.elapsed() < Duration::from_secs(1));
+        assert!(first_event.unwrap().snapshot.popup.is_some());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/modules/clock.rs b/src/modules/clock.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1aebfb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/modules/clock.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+use std::{
+    sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread::{self, JoinHandle},
+    time::{Duration, SystemTime, UNIX_EPOCH},
+};
+
+use calloop::channel::Sender;
+use chrono::{Datelike, Local};
+
+use crate::{
+    config::ClockModule,
+    model::{CalendarModel, ModuleEvent, ModuleSnapshot, PopupContent, PopupModel},
+};
+
+pub fn spawn(
+    name: String,
+    settings: ClockModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+) -> JoinHandle<()> {
+    thread::Builder::new()
+        .name(format!("lightbar-clock-{name}"))
+        .spawn(move || {
+            while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                let now = Local::now();
+                let mut snapshot = ModuleSnapshot::text(now.format(&settings.format).to_string());
+                snapshot.tooltip = Some(now.format("%A, %F %T %Z").to_string());
+                snapshot.popup = Some(PopupModel {
+                    title: now.format("%B %Y").to_string(),
+                    content: PopupContent::Calendar(CalendarModel {
+                        year: now.year(),
+                        month: now.month(),
+                        selected_day: now.day(),
+                    }),
+                });
+                if sender
+                    .send(ModuleEvent {
+                        module: name.clone(),
+                        snapshot,
+                    })
+                    .is_err()
+                {
+                    break;
+                }
+                thread::park_timeout(until_next_boundary(settings.interval.0));
+            }
+        })
+        .expect("clock worker thread")
+}
+
+fn until_next_boundary(interval: Duration) -> Duration {
+    let interval_nanos = interval.as_nanos();
+    if interval_nanos == 0 {
+        return Duration::from_secs(1);
+    }
+    let now_nanos = SystemTime::now()
+        .duration_since(UNIX_EPOCH)
+        .unwrap_or_default()
+        .as_nanos();
+    let remaining = interval_nanos - now_nanos % interval_nanos;
+    Duration::from_nanos(u64::try_from(remaining.min(u128::from(u64::MAX))).unwrap_or(u64::MAX))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn next_boundary_is_positive_and_bounded() {
+        let interval = Duration::from_secs(1);
+        let remaining = until_next_boundary(interval);
+        assert!(remaining > Duration::ZERO);
+        assert!(remaining <= interval);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/modules/command.rs b/src/modules/command.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d40dec0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/modules/command.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,334 @@
+use std::{
+    io::{BufRead, BufReader, Read},
+    process::{Child, Command, ExitStatus, Stdio},
+    sync::{
+        Arc, Mutex,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread::{self, JoinHandle},
+    time::{Duration, Instant},
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, anyhow, bail};
+use calloop::channel::Sender;
+use serde::Deserialize;
+
+use crate::{
+    config::{CommandMode, CommandModule},
+    model::{ModuleEvent, ModuleSnapshot},
+};
+
+type ChildRegistry = Arc<Mutex<Vec<Arc<Mutex<Child>>>>>;
+
+pub fn spawn(
+    name: String,
+    settings: CommandModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    children: ChildRegistry,
+) -> JoinHandle<()> {
+    thread::Builder::new()
+        .name(format!("lightbar-command-{name}"))
+        .spawn(move || match settings.mode {
+            CommandMode::Interval => run_interval(name, settings, sender, stop, children),
+            CommandMode::Stream => run_stream(name, settings, sender, stop, children),
+        })
+        .expect("custom command worker thread")
+}
+
+fn run_interval(
+    name: String,
+    settings: CommandModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    children: ChildRegistry,
+) {
+    let mut last_good: Option<ModuleSnapshot> = None;
+    let mut failures = 0_u32;
+    while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+        let started = Instant::now();
+        let event = match run_once(&settings, &children, &stop) {
+            Ok(output) => match parse_output(&output) {
+                Ok(snapshot) => {
+                    failures = 0;
+                    last_good = Some(snapshot.clone());
+                    snapshot
+                }
+                Err(error) => {
+                    failures = failures.saturating_add(1);
+                    tracing::warn!(module = %name, %error, "custom module output was invalid");
+                    stale(&last_good)
+                }
+            },
+            Err(error) => {
+                failures = failures.saturating_add(1);
+                tracing::warn!(module = %name, %error, "custom module command failed");
+                stale(&last_good)
+            }
+        };
+        if sender
+            .send(ModuleEvent {
+                module: name.clone(),
+                snapshot: event,
+            })
+            .is_err()
+        {
+            break;
+        }
+        let delay = if failures == 0 {
+            settings.interval.0.saturating_sub(started.elapsed())
+        } else {
+            super::process::backoff(failures).min(Duration::from_secs(60))
+        };
+        thread::park_timeout(delay);
+    }
+}
+
+fn run_stream(
+    name: String,
+    settings: CommandModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    children: ChildRegistry,
+) {
+    let mut last_good: Option<ModuleSnapshot> = None;
+    let mut failures = 0_u32;
+    while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+        match stream_once(&name, &settings, &sender, &stop, &children, &mut last_good) {
+            Ok(()) if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) => break,
+            Ok(()) => failures = failures.saturating_add(1),
+            Err(error) => {
+                failures = failures.saturating_add(1);
+                tracing::warn!(module = %name, %error, "custom stream stopped");
+            }
+        }
+        let _ = sender.send(ModuleEvent {
+            module: name.clone(),
+            snapshot: stale(&last_good),
+        });
+        thread::park_timeout(super::process::backoff(failures).min(Duration::from_secs(60)));
+    }
+}
+
+fn stream_once(
+    name: &str,
+    settings: &CommandModule,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: &AtomicBool,
+    children: &ChildRegistry,
+    last_good: &mut Option<ModuleSnapshot>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mut child = command(settings)
+        .stdin(Stdio::null())
+        .stdout(Stdio::piped())
+        .stderr(Stdio::null())
+        .spawn()
+        .with_context(|| format!("could not spawn custom stream for {name}"))?;
+    let stdout = child
+        .stdout
+        .take()
+        .context("custom stream stdout was not piped")?;
+    let child = Arc::new(Mutex::new(child));
+    super::process::register_child(children, &child);
+    if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+        && let Ok(mut process) = child.lock()
+    {
+        let _ = process.kill();
+    }
+
+    let mut reader = BufReader::new(stdout);
+    let mut line = Vec::new();
+    loop {
+        line.clear();
+        let read = reader.read_until(b'\n', &mut line)?;
+        if read == 0 || stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            break;
+        }
+        if line.len() > settings.max_output_bytes {
+            if let Ok(mut process) = child.lock() {
+                let _ = process.kill();
+            }
+            bail!("stream line exceeded {} bytes", settings.max_output_bytes);
+        }
+        while matches!(line.last(), Some(b'\n' | b'\r')) {
+            line.pop();
+        }
+        let text = std::str::from_utf8(&line).context("stream emitted non-UTF-8 output")?;
+        match parse_output(text) {
+            Ok(snapshot) => {
+                *last_good = Some(snapshot.clone());
+                if sender
+                    .send(ModuleEvent {
+                        module: name.to_owned(),
+                        snapshot,
+                    })
+                    .is_err()
+                {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            Err(error) => tracing::warn!(module = name, %error, "ignored invalid stream line"),
+        }
+    }
+    let status = super::process::wait_child(&child, stop)?;
+    if !status.success() && !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+        bail!("custom stream exited with {status}");
+    }
+    super::process::unregister_child(children, &child);
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn run_once(
+    settings: &CommandModule,
+    children: &ChildRegistry,
+    stop: &AtomicBool,
+) -> Result<String> {
+    let mut child = command(settings)
+        .stdin(Stdio::null())
+        .stdout(Stdio::piped())
+        .stderr(Stdio::piped())
+        .spawn()
+        .context("could not spawn custom command")?;
+    let stdout = child
+        .stdout
+        .take()
+        .context("custom command stdout was not piped")?;
+    let stderr = child
+        .stderr
+        .take()
+        .context("custom command stderr was not piped")?;
+    let child = Arc::new(Mutex::new(child));
+    super::process::register_child(children, &child);
+
+    let limit = u64::try_from(settings.max_output_bytes.saturating_add(1)).unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
+    let stdout_thread = thread::spawn(move || read_limited(stdout, limit));
+    let stderr_thread = thread::spawn(move || read_limited(stderr, limit));
+    let started = Instant::now();
+    let status: ExitStatus = loop {
+        if (stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) || started.elapsed() >= settings.timeout.0)
+            && let Ok(mut process) = child.lock()
+        {
+            let _ = process.kill();
+        }
+        let maybe_status = child
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| anyhow!("custom command child lock was poisoned"))?
+            .try_wait()?;
+        if let Some(status) = maybe_status {
+            break status;
+        }
+        thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(10));
+    };
+    let stdout = stdout_thread
+        .join()
+        .map_err(|_| anyhow!("stdout reader panicked"))??;
+    let stderr = stderr_thread
+        .join()
+        .map_err(|_| anyhow!("stderr reader panicked"))??;
+    super::process::unregister_child(children, &child);
+
+    if started.elapsed() >= settings.timeout.0 && !status.success() {
+        bail!(
+            "custom command exceeded timeout of {:?}",
+            settings.timeout.0
+        );
+    }
+    if stdout.len() > settings.max_output_bytes || stderr.len() > settings.max_output_bytes {
+        bail!(
+            "custom command exceeded {} byte output limit",
+            settings.max_output_bytes
+        );
+    }
+    if !status.success() {
+        let stderr = String::from_utf8_lossy(&stderr);
+        bail!("custom command exited with {status}: {}", stderr.trim());
+    }
+    Ok(String::from_utf8(stdout)?.trim_end().to_owned())
+}
+
+fn command(settings: &CommandModule) -> Command {
+    if let Some(shell) = &settings.shell {
+        let mut command = Command::new("/bin/sh");
+        command.args(["-c", shell]);
+        command
+    } else {
+        let mut command = Command::new(&settings.argv[0]);
+        command.args(&settings.argv[1..]);
+        command
+    }
+}
+
+fn read_limited(reader: impl Read, limit: u64) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let mut output = Vec::new();
+    reader.take(limit).read_to_end(&mut output)?;
+    Ok(output)
+}
+
+fn stale(last_good: &Option<ModuleSnapshot>) -> ModuleSnapshot {
+    let mut snapshot = last_good.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+    snapshot.stale = last_good.is_some();
+    snapshot
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+#[serde(deny_unknown_fields)]
+struct JsonOutput {
+    text: String,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    tooltip: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(default = "normal_state")]
+    state: String,
+    #[serde(default = "default_visible")]
+    visible: bool,
+}
+
+fn normal_state() -> String {
+    "normal".to_owned()
+}
+
+const fn default_visible() -> bool {
+    true
+}
+
+fn parse_output(output: &str) -> Result<ModuleSnapshot> {
+    let trimmed = output.trim();
+    if trimmed.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(ModuleSnapshot::default());
+    }
+    if trimmed.starts_with('{') {
+        let parsed: JsonOutput = serde_json::from_str(trimmed)?;
+        if parsed.state.is_empty()
+            || !parsed.state.chars().all(|character| {
+                character.is_ascii_alphanumeric() || matches!(character, '-' | '_')
+            })
+        {
+            bail!("custom state must be an ASCII identifier");
+        }
+        let mut snapshot = ModuleSnapshot::text(parsed.text).with_state(parsed.state);
+        snapshot.tooltip = parsed.tooltip;
+        snapshot.visible = parsed.visible;
+        Ok(snapshot)
+    } else {
+        Ok(ModuleSnapshot::text(trimmed))
+    }
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn parses_plain_and_json_output() {
+        assert_eq!(parse_output("hello\n").unwrap().segments[0].text, "hello");
+        let parsed =
+            parse_output(r#"{"text":"hot","tooltip":"details","state":"critical","visible":true}"#)
+                .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(parsed.segments[0].state, "critical");
+        assert_eq!(parsed.tooltip.as_deref(), Some("details"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_unknown_json_fields() {
+        assert!(parse_output(r#"{"text":"x","bad":true}"#).is_err());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/modules/mod.rs b/src/modules/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8dabfa8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/modules/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,308 @@
+mod audio;
+mod clock;
+mod command;
+mod process;
+mod sway;
+mod sysfs;
+mod tray;
+
+use std::{
+    collections::BTreeMap,
+    process::Child,
+    sync::{
+        Arc, Mutex,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread::JoinHandle,
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, bail};
+use calloop::channel::{Channel, Sender, channel};
+
+use crate::{
+    config::{
+        Action, AudioModule, BacklightModule, BuiltinAction, Config, ModuleConfig,
+        UnavailableBehavior,
+    },
+    model::{ModuleEvent, ModuleSnapshot},
+};
+
+pub use audio::{AudioAction, AudioTarget};
+pub use sway::run_sway_command;
+pub use sysfs::set_backlight_percent;
+pub use tray::{activate_tray_item, scroll_tray_item};
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct ModuleRuntime {
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    threads: Vec<JoinHandle<()>>,
+    children: Arc<Mutex<Vec<Arc<Mutex<Child>>>>>,
+    module_kinds: BTreeMap<String, &'static str>,
+    audio_actions: BTreeMap<String, tokio::sync::mpsc::Sender<AudioAction>>,
+}
+
+impl ModuleRuntime {
+    pub fn start(config: &Config) -> Result<(Self, Channel<ModuleEvent>)> {
+        let (sender, receiver) = channel();
+        let runtime = Self::start_with_sender(config, sender)?;
+        Ok((runtime, receiver))
+    }
+
+    pub fn start_with_sender(config: &Config, sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>) -> Result<Self> {
+        let stop = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let children = Arc::new(Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
+        let mut threads = Vec::new();
+        let mut module_kinds = BTreeMap::new();
+        let mut audio_actions = BTreeMap::new();
+
+        let sway_modules = sway::ConfiguredSwayModules::from_config(config);
+        if !sway_modules.is_empty() {
+            threads.push(sway::spawn(sway_modules, sender.clone(), Arc::clone(&stop)));
+        }
+
+        for (name, module) in &config.modules {
+            module_kinds.insert(name.clone(), kind_name(module));
+            if !module.common().enabled {
+                continue;
+            }
+            send_initial(name, module, &sender);
+            match module {
+                ModuleConfig::Clock(settings) => threads.push(clock::spawn(
+                    name.clone(),
+                    settings.clone(),
+                    sender.clone(),
+                    Arc::clone(&stop),
+                )),
+                ModuleConfig::Temperature(settings) => threads.push(sysfs::spawn_temperature(
+                    name.clone(),
+                    settings.clone(),
+                    sender.clone(),
+                    Arc::clone(&stop),
+                )),
+                ModuleConfig::Backlight(settings) => threads.push(sysfs::spawn_backlight(
+                    name.clone(),
+                    settings.clone(),
+                    sender.clone(),
+                    Arc::clone(&stop),
+                )),
+                ModuleConfig::Battery(settings) => threads.push(sysfs::spawn_battery(
+                    name.clone(),
+                    settings.clone(),
+                    sender.clone(),
+                    Arc::clone(&stop),
+                )),
+                ModuleConfig::Network(settings) => threads.push(process::spawn_network(
+                    name.clone(),
+                    settings.clone(),
+                    sender.clone(),
+                    Arc::clone(&stop),
+                    Arc::clone(&children),
+                )),
+                ModuleConfig::Audio(settings) => {
+                    let (worker, actions) = audio::spawn(
+                        name.clone(),
+                        settings.clone(),
+                        sender.clone(),
+                        Arc::clone(&stop),
+                    );
+                    threads.push(worker);
+                    audio_actions.insert(name.clone(), actions);
+                }
+                ModuleConfig::Command(settings) => threads.push(command::spawn(
+                    name.clone(),
+                    settings.clone(),
+                    sender.clone(),
+                    Arc::clone(&stop),
+                    Arc::clone(&children),
+                )),
+                ModuleConfig::Tray(settings) => threads.push(tray::spawn(
+                    name.clone(),
+                    settings.clone(),
+                    sender.clone(),
+                    Arc::clone(&stop),
+                )),
+                ModuleConfig::Workspaces(_)
+                | ModuleConfig::Mode(_)
+                | ModuleConfig::Scratchpad(_) => {}
+            }
+        }
+
+        Ok(Self {
+            stop,
+            threads,
+            children,
+            module_kinds,
+            audio_actions,
+        })
+    }
+
+    pub fn kind(&self, module: &str) -> Option<&'static str> {
+        self.module_kinds.get(module).copied()
+    }
+
+    /// Queues a control without blocking the UI; the module worker owns execution.
+    ///
+    /// # Errors
+    /// Returns an error if the module is stopped or its bounded queue is full.
+    pub fn audio_action(&self, module: &str, action: AudioAction) -> Result<()> {
+        self.audio_actions
+            .get(module)
+            .context("audio module is not running")?
+            .try_send(action)
+            .context("could not queue audio control")
+    }
+}
+
+impl Drop for ModuleRuntime {
+    fn drop(&mut self) {
+        self.stop.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        self.audio_actions.clear();
+        for thread in &self.threads {
+            thread.thread().unpark();
+        }
+        let children = self
+            .children
+            .lock()
+            .map(|children| children.clone())
+            .unwrap_or_default();
+        for child in children {
+            if let Ok(mut child) = child.lock() {
+                let _ = child.kill();
+            }
+        }
+        for thread in self.threads.drain(..) {
+            if let Err(error) = thread.join() {
+                tracing::debug!(?error, "module worker did not shut down cleanly");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn send_initial(name: &str, module: &ModuleConfig, sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>) {
+    let placeholder = match module.common().unavailable {
+        UnavailableBehavior::Hide => None,
+        UnavailableBehavior::Placeholder => Some("N/A"),
+    };
+    let _ = sender.send(ModuleEvent {
+        module: name.to_owned(),
+        snapshot: ModuleSnapshot::unavailable(placeholder),
+    });
+}
+
+fn kind_name(module: &ModuleConfig) -> &'static str {
+    match module {
+        ModuleConfig::Workspaces(_) => "workspaces",
+        ModuleConfig::Mode(_) => "mode",
+        ModuleConfig::Scratchpad(_) => "scratchpad",
+        ModuleConfig::Network(_) => "network",
+        ModuleConfig::Temperature(_) => "temperature",
+        ModuleConfig::Backlight(_) => "backlight",
+        ModuleConfig::Audio(_) => "audio",
+        ModuleConfig::Battery(_) => "battery",
+        ModuleConfig::Clock(_) => "clock",
+        ModuleConfig::Command(_) => "command",
+        ModuleConfig::Tray(_) => "tray",
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn execute_action(action: &Action) -> Result<()> {
+    match action {
+        Action::Builtin { name } => match name {
+            BuiltinAction::TogglePopover
+            | BuiltinAction::ClosePopover
+            | BuiltinAction::PreviousMonth
+            | BuiltinAction::NextMonth => {
+                bail!("popup action must be handled by the UI")
+            }
+            BuiltinAction::ToggleMute => {
+                process::wpctl(&["set-mute", "@DEFAULT_AUDIO_SINK@", "toggle"])
+            }
+            BuiltinAction::VolumeUp => {
+                process::wpctl(&["set-volume", "-l", "1.5", "@DEFAULT_AUDIO_SINK@", "5%+"])
+            }
+            BuiltinAction::VolumeDown => {
+                process::wpctl(&["set-volume", "@DEFAULT_AUDIO_SINK@", "5%-"])
+            }
+            BuiltinAction::BrightnessUp | BuiltinAction::BrightnessDown => {
+                bail!("brightness action requires module settings")
+            }
+        },
+        Action::Sway { command } => sway::run_sway_command(command),
+        Action::Exec { argv } => spawn_detached(argv),
+        Action::Shell { command } => spawn_shell(command),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn execute_builtin_for_module(builtin: BuiltinAction, module: &ModuleConfig) -> Result<()> {
+    match (builtin, module) {
+        (BuiltinAction::BrightnessUp, ModuleConfig::Backlight(settings)) => {
+            sysfs::adjust_backlight(settings, i16::from(settings.step_percent))
+        }
+        (BuiltinAction::BrightnessDown, ModuleConfig::Backlight(settings)) => {
+            sysfs::adjust_backlight(settings, -i16::from(settings.step_percent))
+        }
+        (BuiltinAction::VolumeUp, ModuleConfig::Audio(settings)) => {
+            process::change_volume(settings, true)
+        }
+        (BuiltinAction::VolumeDown, ModuleConfig::Audio(settings)) => {
+            process::change_volume(settings, false)
+        }
+        _ => execute_action(&Action::Builtin { name: builtin }),
+    }
+}
+
+fn spawn_detached(argv: &[String]) -> Result<()> {
+    let (program, arguments) = argv.split_first().context("exec action has no program")?;
+    std::process::Command::new(program)
+        .args(arguments)
+        .spawn()
+        .with_context(|| format!("could not spawn {program:?}"))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn spawn_shell(command: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    std::process::Command::new("/bin/sh")
+        .args(["-c", command])
+        .spawn()
+        .with_context(|| format!("could not execute shell action {command:?}"))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn action_for_button(
+    module: &ModuleConfig,
+    button: crate::model::PointerButton,
+) -> Option<&Action> {
+    let actions = &module.common().actions;
+    match button {
+        crate::model::PointerButton::Left => actions.left.as_ref(),
+        crate::model::PointerButton::Middle => actions.middle.as_ref(),
+        crate::model::PointerButton::Right => actions.right.as_ref(),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn action_for_scroll(
+    module: &ModuleConfig,
+    direction: crate::model::ScrollDirection,
+) -> Option<&Action> {
+    let actions = &module.common().actions;
+    match direction {
+        crate::model::ScrollDirection::Up => actions.scroll_up.as_ref(),
+        crate::model::ScrollDirection::Down => actions.scroll_down.as_ref(),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn configured_audio(module: &ModuleConfig) -> Option<&AudioModule> {
+    if let ModuleConfig::Audio(settings) = module {
+        Some(settings)
+    } else {
+        None
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn configured_backlight(module: &ModuleConfig) -> Option<&BacklightModule> {
+    if let ModuleConfig::Backlight(settings) = module {
+        Some(settings)
+    } else {
+        None
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/modules/process.rs b/src/modules/process.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b0623dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/modules/process.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,335 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::BTreeMap,
+    io::{BufRead, BufReader},
+    process::{Child, Command, ExitStatus, Stdio},
+    sync::{
+        Arc, Mutex,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread::{self, JoinHandle},
+    time::{Duration, Instant},
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, bail};
+use calloop::channel::Sender;
+
+use crate::{
+    config::{AudioModule, NetworkModule},
+    format::{Value, expand},
+    model::{ModuleEvent, ModuleSnapshot, PopupContent, PopupModel, PopupRow},
+};
+
+type ChildRegistry = Arc<Mutex<Vec<Arc<Mutex<Child>>>>>;
+
+pub fn spawn_network(
+    name: String,
+    settings: NetworkModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    children: ChildRegistry,
+) -> JoinHandle<()> {
+    thread::Builder::new()
+        .name(format!("lightbar-network-{name}"))
+        .spawn(move || {
+            let mut failures = 0_u32;
+            while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                if publish_network(&name, &settings, &sender).is_ok() {
+                    failures = 0;
+                } else {
+                    failures = failures.saturating_add(1);
+                }
+                if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                    break;
+                }
+                match monitored_lines(
+                    "nmcli",
+                    &["monitor"],
+                    &stop,
+                    &children,
+                    Duration::from_millis(250),
+                    || publish_network(&name, &settings, &sender),
+                ) {
+                    Ok(()) if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) => break,
+                    Ok(()) => {}
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        tracing::warn!(module = %name, %error, "network monitor stopped");
+                        failures = failures.saturating_add(1);
+                    }
+                }
+                thread::park_timeout(backoff(failures));
+            }
+        })
+        .expect("network worker thread")
+}
+
+fn publish_network(
+    name: &str,
+    settings: &NetworkModule,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let output = Command::new("nmcli")
+        .args([
+            "--terse",
+            "--escape",
+            "no",
+            "--fields",
+            "DEVICE,TYPE,STATE,CONNECTION",
+            "device",
+            "status",
+        ])
+        .output()
+        .context("could not run nmcli")?;
+    if !output.status.success() {
+        bail!("nmcli exited with {}", output.status);
+    }
+    let text = String::from_utf8(output.stdout)?;
+    let mut candidates = text.lines().filter_map(parse_network_line).filter(|entry| {
+        settings
+            .interface
+            .as_deref()
+            .is_none_or(|interface| entry.device == interface)
+    });
+    let selected = candidates
+        .clone()
+        .find(|entry| entry.connected && entry.kind == "wifi")
+        .or_else(|| candidates.find(|entry| entry.connected));
+
+    let mut snapshot = if let Some(entry) = selected {
+        let values = BTreeMap::from([
+            ("ssid", Value::from(entry.connection.clone())),
+            ("connection", Value::from(entry.connection.clone())),
+            ("interface", Value::from(entry.device.clone())),
+        ]);
+        let mut snapshot = ModuleSnapshot::text(expand(&settings.format_connected, &values));
+        let addresses = network_addresses(&entry.device).unwrap_or_default();
+        snapshot.tooltip = Some(format!(
+            "{} on {}{}",
+            entry.connection,
+            entry.device,
+            if addresses.is_empty() {
+                String::new()
+            } else {
+                format!(" · {}", addresses.join(", "))
+            }
+        ));
+        snapshot.popup = Some(PopupModel {
+            title: "Network".to_owned(),
+            content: PopupContent::Rows(vec![
+                PopupRow {
+                    id: None,
+                    label: "Connection".to_owned(),
+                    detail: Some(entry.connection.clone()),
+                    state: "normal".to_owned(),
+                    enabled: false,
+                },
+                PopupRow {
+                    id: None,
+                    label: "Interface".to_owned(),
+                    detail: Some(entry.device.clone()),
+                    state: "normal".to_owned(),
+                    enabled: false,
+                },
+                PopupRow {
+                    id: Some("open-settings".to_owned()),
+                    label: "Open connection editor".to_owned(),
+                    detail: None,
+                    state: "normal".to_owned(),
+                    enabled: true,
+                },
+            ]),
+        });
+        snapshot
+    } else {
+        ModuleSnapshot::text(settings.format_disconnected.clone()).with_state("disconnected")
+    };
+    snapshot.visible = true;
+    sender
+        .send(ModuleEvent {
+            module: name.to_owned(),
+            snapshot,
+        })
+        .map_err(|_| anyhow::anyhow!("UI event channel closed"))
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct NetworkEntry {
+    device: String,
+    kind: String,
+    connected: bool,
+    connection: String,
+}
+
+fn parse_network_line(line: &str) -> Option<NetworkEntry> {
+    let mut fields = line.splitn(4, ':');
+    let device = fields.next()?.to_owned();
+    let kind = fields.next()?.to_owned();
+    let state = fields.next()?.to_owned();
+    let connection = fields.next().unwrap_or_default().to_owned();
+    Some(NetworkEntry {
+        device,
+        kind,
+        connected: state.starts_with("connected"),
+        connection,
+    })
+}
+
+fn network_addresses(device: &str) -> Result<Vec<String>> {
+    let output = Command::new("nmcli")
+        .args([
+            "--terse",
+            "--get-values",
+            "IP4.ADDRESS",
+            "device",
+            "show",
+            device,
+        ])
+        .output()?;
+    if !output.status.success() {
+        return Ok(Vec::new());
+    }
+    Ok(String::from_utf8(output.stdout)?
+        .lines()
+        .map(str::trim)
+        .filter(|line| !line.is_empty())
+        .map(str::to_owned)
+        .collect())
+}
+
+pub fn wpctl(args: &[&str]) -> Result<()> {
+    let status = Command::new("wpctl").args(args).status()?;
+    if !status.success() {
+        bail!("wpctl exited with {status}");
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn change_volume(settings: &AudioModule, increase: bool) -> Result<()> {
+    let change = if increase {
+        format!("{}%+", settings.step_percent)
+    } else {
+        format!("{}%-", settings.step_percent)
+    };
+    let mut args = vec!["set-volume"];
+    if increase {
+        args.extend(["-l", "1.5"]);
+    }
+    args.extend(["@DEFAULT_AUDIO_SINK@", &change]);
+    wpctl(&args)
+}
+
+fn monitored_lines<F>(
+    program: &str,
+    args: &[&str],
+    stop: &AtomicBool,
+    children: &ChildRegistry,
+    debounce: Duration,
+    mut callback: F,
+) -> Result<()>
+where
+    F: FnMut() -> Result<()>,
+{
+    let mut child = Command::new(program)
+        .args(args)
+        .stdin(Stdio::null())
+        .stdout(Stdio::piped())
+        .stderr(Stdio::null())
+        .spawn()
+        .with_context(|| format!("could not start {program}"))?;
+    let stdout = child
+        .stdout
+        .take()
+        .context("monitor stdout was not piped")?;
+    let child = Arc::new(Mutex::new(child));
+    register_child(children, &child);
+    if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire)
+        && let Ok(mut process) = child.lock()
+    {
+        let _ = process.kill();
+    }
+
+    let mut last_update = Instant::now()
+        .checked_sub(debounce)
+        .unwrap_or_else(Instant::now);
+    for line in BufReader::new(stdout).lines() {
+        if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+            break;
+        }
+        line.with_context(|| format!("could not read {program} output"))?;
+        if last_update.elapsed() >= debounce {
+            if let Err(error) = callback() {
+                tracing::debug!(%error, program, "monitor refresh failed");
+            }
+            last_update = Instant::now();
+        }
+    }
+    let status = wait_child(&child, stop)?;
+    if !status.success() && !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+        bail!("{program} monitor exited with {status}");
+    }
+    unregister_child(children, &child);
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub(super) fn wait_child(child: &Arc<Mutex<Child>>, stop: &AtomicBool) -> Result<ExitStatus> {
+    loop {
+        let status = {
+            let mut process = child
+                .lock()
+                .map_err(|_| anyhow::anyhow!("module child lock was poisoned"))?;
+            if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                let _ = process.kill();
+            }
+            process.try_wait()?
+        };
+        if let Some(status) = status {
+            return Ok(status);
+        }
+        thread::park_timeout(Duration::from_millis(10));
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn register_child(children: &ChildRegistry, child: &Arc<Mutex<Child>>) {
+    if let Ok(mut children) = children.lock() {
+        children.push(Arc::clone(child));
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn unregister_child(children: &ChildRegistry, child: &Arc<Mutex<Child>>) {
+    if let Ok(mut children) = children.lock() {
+        children.retain(|candidate| !Arc::ptr_eq(candidate, child));
+    }
+}
+
+pub(super) fn backoff(failures: u32) -> Duration {
+    Duration::from_secs(1_u64 << failures.min(6))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn parses_network_status() {
+        let parsed = parse_network_line("wlan0:wifi:connected:home").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(parsed.device, "wlan0");
+        assert!(parsed.connected);
+        assert_eq!(parsed.connection, "home");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn stopped_child_wait_is_interruptible() {
+        let child = Command::new("sleep").arg("30").spawn().unwrap();
+        let child = Arc::new(Mutex::new(child));
+        let stop = Arc::new(AtomicBool::new(false));
+        let waiter_child = Arc::clone(&child);
+        let waiter_stop = Arc::clone(&stop);
+        let waiter = thread::spawn(move || wait_child(&waiter_child, &waiter_stop).unwrap());
+
+        thread::sleep(Duration::from_millis(20));
+        stop.store(true, Ordering::Release);
+        waiter.thread().unpark();
+        let status = waiter.join().unwrap();
+
+        assert!(!status.success());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/modules/sway.rs b/src/modules/sway.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2b460e5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/modules/sway.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,638 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::BTreeMap,
+    env,
+    io::{self, Read, Write},
+    os::unix::net::UnixStream,
+    path::PathBuf,
+    process::Command,
+    sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread::{self, JoinHandle},
+    time::Duration,
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, anyhow, bail};
+use calloop::channel::Sender;
+use serde::Deserialize;
+use serde_json::Value as JsonValue;
+
+use crate::{
+    config::{Config, ModeModule, ModuleConfig, ScratchpadModule, WorkspacesModule},
+    format::{Value, expand},
+    model::{ModuleEvent, ModuleSnapshot, PopupContent, PopupModel, PopupRow, Segment},
+};
+
+const MAGIC: &[u8; 6] = b"i3-ipc";
+const GET_WORKSPACES: u32 = 1;
+const SUBSCRIBE: u32 = 2;
+const RUN_COMMAND: u32 = 0;
+const GET_TREE: u32 = 4;
+const GET_BINDING_STATE: u32 = 12;
+const EVENT_MASK: u32 = 0x8000_0000;
+const EVENT_WORKSPACE: u32 = EVENT_MASK;
+const EVENT_OUTPUT: u32 = EVENT_MASK | 1;
+const EVENT_MODE: u32 = EVENT_MASK | 2;
+const EVENT_WINDOW: u32 = EVENT_MASK | 3;
+const EVENT_SHUTDOWN: u32 = EVENT_MASK | 6;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct ConfiguredSwayModules {
+    workspaces: Vec<(String, WorkspacesModule)>,
+    modes: Vec<(String, ModeModule)>,
+    scratchpads: Vec<(String, ScratchpadModule)>,
+}
+
+impl ConfiguredSwayModules {
+    pub fn from_config(config: &Config) -> Self {
+        let mut configured = Self::default();
+        for (name, module) in &config.modules {
+            if !module.common().enabled {
+                continue;
+            }
+            match module {
+                ModuleConfig::Workspaces(settings) => {
+                    configured.workspaces.push((name.clone(), settings.clone()));
+                }
+                ModuleConfig::Mode(settings) => {
+                    configured.modes.push((name.clone(), settings.clone()));
+                }
+                ModuleConfig::Scratchpad(settings) => {
+                    configured
+                        .scratchpads
+                        .push((name.clone(), settings.clone()));
+                }
+                _ => {}
+            }
+        }
+        configured
+    }
+
+    pub fn is_empty(&self) -> bool {
+        self.workspaces.is_empty() && self.modes.is_empty() && self.scratchpads.is_empty()
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn spawn(
+    modules: ConfiguredSwayModules,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+) -> JoinHandle<()> {
+    thread::Builder::new()
+        .name("lightbar-sway-ipc".to_owned())
+        .spawn(move || {
+            let mut failures = 0_u32;
+            let mut last_good = BTreeMap::new();
+            while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                match run_subscription(&modules, &sender, &stop, &mut last_good) {
+                    Ok(()) if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) => break,
+                    Ok(()) => failures = 0,
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        failures = failures.saturating_add(1);
+                        tracing::warn!(%error, "Sway IPC disconnected");
+                        publish_stale(&modules, &last_good, &sender);
+                    }
+                }
+                let delay = Duration::from_secs(1_u64 << failures.min(5));
+                thread::park_timeout(delay);
+            }
+        })
+        .expect("Sway IPC worker thread")
+}
+
+fn run_subscription(
+    modules: &ConfiguredSwayModules,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: &AtomicBool,
+    last_good: &mut BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let socket_path = socket_path()?;
+    // Keep a separate request connection open for the lifetime of the event
+    // subscription. Besides avoiding connection churn, this lets an existing
+    // bar keep working if the filesystem name of Sway's listening socket is
+    // accidentally removed while the compositor is still running.
+    let mut control = connect(&socket_path, Duration::from_secs(3))?;
+    let mut events = connect(&socket_path, Duration::from_secs(2))?;
+    write_message(
+        &mut events,
+        SUBSCRIBE,
+        br#"["workspace","mode","window","output","shutdown"]"#,
+    )?;
+    let (_, reply) = read_message(&mut events)?;
+    let accepted = serde_json::from_slice::<JsonValue>(&reply)?
+        .get("success")
+        .and_then(JsonValue::as_bool)
+        .unwrap_or(false);
+    if !accepted {
+        bail!("Sway rejected event subscription");
+    }
+
+    refresh_workspaces(modules, sender, &mut control, last_good)?;
+    refresh_mode(modules, sender, &mut control, last_good)?;
+    refresh_scratchpad(modules, sender, &mut control, last_good)?;
+
+    while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+        match read_message(&mut events) {
+            Ok((EVENT_WORKSPACE | EVENT_OUTPUT, _)) => {
+                refresh_workspaces(modules, sender, &mut control, last_good)?;
+            }
+            Ok((EVENT_MODE, payload)) => {
+                publish_mode_event(modules, sender, &payload, last_good)?;
+            }
+            Ok((EVENT_WINDOW, payload)) if window_may_affect_scratchpad(&payload) => {
+                refresh_scratchpad(modules, sender, &mut control, last_good)?;
+            }
+            Ok((EVENT_WINDOW, _)) => {}
+            Ok((EVENT_SHUTDOWN, _)) => bail!("Sway is shutting down"),
+            Ok((kind, _)) => tracing::trace!(kind, "ignored Sway IPC event"),
+            Err(error)
+                if error.downcast_ref::<io::Error>().is_some_and(|error| {
+                    matches!(
+                        error.kind(),
+                        io::ErrorKind::WouldBlock | io::ErrorKind::TimedOut
+                    )
+                }) => {}
+            Err(error) => return Err(error),
+        }
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn refresh_workspaces(
+    modules: &ConfiguredSwayModules,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    control: &mut UnixStream,
+    last_good: &mut BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if modules.workspaces.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let payload = request_on(control, GET_WORKSPACES, b"")?;
+    let mut workspaces: Vec<Workspace> = serde_json::from_slice(&payload)?;
+    workspaces.sort_by(|left, right| {
+        left.num
+            .cmp(&right.num)
+            .then_with(|| left.name.cmp(&right.name))
+    });
+    for (name, settings) in &modules.workspaces {
+        let segments = workspaces
+            .iter()
+            .map(|workspace| {
+                let index = if workspace.num >= 0 {
+                    workspace.num.to_string()
+                } else {
+                    workspace.name.clone()
+                };
+                let text = expand(
+                    &settings.format,
+                    &std::collections::BTreeMap::from([
+                        ("index", Value::from(index)),
+                        ("name", Value::from(workspace.name.clone())),
+                    ]),
+                );
+                Segment {
+                    id: Some(workspace.name.clone()),
+                    text,
+                    state: if workspace.urgent {
+                        "urgent"
+                    } else if workspace.focused {
+                        "focused"
+                    } else if workspace.visible {
+                        "active"
+                    } else {
+                        "normal"
+                    }
+                    .to_owned(),
+                    output: Some(workspace.output.clone()),
+                    icon: None,
+                }
+            })
+            .collect();
+        publish_snapshot(
+            name,
+            ModuleSnapshot {
+                segments,
+                visible: true,
+                ..ModuleSnapshot::default()
+            },
+            sender,
+            last_good,
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn refresh_mode(
+    modules: &ConfiguredSwayModules,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    control: &mut UnixStream,
+    last_good: &mut BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if modules.modes.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let payload = request_on(control, GET_BINDING_STATE, b"")?;
+    let mode: BindingState = serde_json::from_slice(&payload)?;
+    publish_mode(modules, sender, &mode.name, last_good);
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn publish_mode_event(
+    modules: &ConfiguredSwayModules,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    payload: &[u8],
+    last_good: &mut BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let mode: ModeEvent = serde_json::from_slice(payload)?;
+    publish_mode(modules, sender, &mode.change, last_good);
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn publish_mode(
+    modules: &ConfiguredSwayModules,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    mode: &str,
+    last_good: &mut BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+) {
+    for (name, settings) in &modules.modes {
+        let snapshot = if mode == "default" {
+            ModuleSnapshot::default()
+        } else {
+            ModuleSnapshot::text(expand(
+                &settings.format,
+                &std::collections::BTreeMap::from([("mode", Value::from(mode))]),
+            ))
+            .with_state("urgent")
+        };
+        publish_snapshot(name, snapshot, sender, last_good);
+    }
+}
+
+fn refresh_scratchpad(
+    modules: &ConfiguredSwayModules,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    control: &mut UnixStream,
+    last_good: &mut BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    if modules.scratchpads.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+    let tree: TreeNode = serde_json::from_slice(&request_on(control, GET_TREE, b"")?)?;
+    let scratch = find_scratch_node(&tree);
+    let windows: Vec<&TreeNode> = scratch.map_or_else(Vec::new, |node| {
+        node.floating_nodes.iter().chain(&node.nodes).collect()
+    });
+    for (name, settings) in &modules.scratchpads {
+        let count = i64::try_from(windows.len()).unwrap_or(i64::MAX);
+        let text = if windows.is_empty() {
+            settings.empty_format.clone()
+        } else {
+            expand(
+                &settings.format,
+                &std::collections::BTreeMap::from([("count", Value::from(count))]),
+            )
+        };
+        let popup_rows = windows
+            .iter()
+            .map(|window| PopupRow {
+                id: Some(window.id.to_string()),
+                label: window
+                    .name
+                    .clone()
+                    .or_else(|| window.app_id.clone())
+                    .unwrap_or_else(|| "Unnamed scratchpad window".to_owned()),
+                detail: window.app_id.clone(),
+                state: "normal".to_owned(),
+                enabled: true,
+            })
+            .collect();
+        let mut snapshot = ModuleSnapshot::text(text);
+        snapshot.tooltip = Some(format!("{} scratchpad window(s)", windows.len()));
+        snapshot.popup = Some(PopupModel {
+            title: "Scratchpad".to_owned(),
+            content: PopupContent::Rows(popup_rows),
+        });
+        publish_snapshot(name, snapshot, sender, last_good);
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn find_scratch_node(node: &TreeNode) -> Option<&TreeNode> {
+    if node.name.as_deref() == Some("__i3_scratch") {
+        return Some(node);
+    }
+    node.nodes
+        .iter()
+        .chain(&node.floating_nodes)
+        .find_map(find_scratch_node)
+}
+
+fn window_may_affect_scratchpad(payload: &[u8]) -> bool {
+    let Ok(event) = serde_json::from_slice::<JsonValue>(payload) else {
+        // A future Sway payload shape should cost one safe refresh, not leave
+        // the scratchpad permanently stale.
+        return true;
+    };
+    let scratchpad_state = event
+        .pointer("/container/scratchpad_state")
+        .and_then(JsonValue::as_str)
+        .unwrap_or("none");
+    scratchpad_state != "none" || event.get("change").and_then(JsonValue::as_str) == Some("move")
+}
+
+fn publish_snapshot(
+    name: &str,
+    snapshot: ModuleSnapshot,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    last_good: &mut BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+) {
+    last_good.insert(name.to_owned(), snapshot.clone());
+    let _ = sender.send(ModuleEvent {
+        module: name.to_owned(),
+        snapshot,
+    });
+}
+
+fn publish_stale(
+    modules: &ConfiguredSwayModules,
+    last_good: &BTreeMap<String, ModuleSnapshot>,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+) {
+    // Keep the last focused/urgent workspace styling intact. The generic
+    // `stale` rendering state intentionally dims a module, which would make
+    // the selected workspace appear to vanish even though its segment is
+    // still present.
+    for (name, _) in &modules.workspaces {
+        let Some(snapshot) = last_good.get(name) else {
+            continue;
+        };
+        let _ = sender.send(ModuleEvent {
+            module: name.clone(),
+            snapshot: disconnected_workspace_snapshot(snapshot),
+        });
+    }
+
+    for name in modules
+        .modes
+        .iter()
+        .map(|(name, _)| name)
+        .chain(modules.scratchpads.iter().map(|(name, _)| name))
+    {
+        if let Some(snapshot) = last_good.get(name) {
+            let _ = sender.send(ModuleEvent {
+                module: name.clone(),
+                snapshot: stale_snapshot(snapshot),
+            });
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn disconnected_workspace_snapshot(snapshot: &ModuleSnapshot) -> ModuleSnapshot {
+    let mut disconnected = snapshot.clone();
+    disconnected.tooltip = Some("Sway IPC disconnected; showing last known workspaces".to_owned());
+    disconnected
+}
+
+fn stale_snapshot(snapshot: &ModuleSnapshot) -> ModuleSnapshot {
+    let mut stale = snapshot.clone();
+    stale.stale = true;
+    stale
+}
+
+pub fn run_sway_command(command: &str) -> Result<()> {
+    let payload = request(RUN_COMMAND, command.as_bytes())?;
+    let replies: Vec<CommandReply> = serde_json::from_slice(&payload)?;
+    if let Some(failure) = replies.iter().find(|reply| !reply.success) {
+        bail!(
+            "Sway command failed: {}",
+            failure.error.as_deref().unwrap_or("unknown error")
+        );
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn request(kind: u32, payload: &[u8]) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    let path = socket_path()?;
+    let mut stream = connect(&path, Duration::from_secs(3))?;
+    request_on(&mut stream, kind, payload)
+}
+
+fn connect(path: &std::path::Path, read_timeout: Duration) -> Result<UnixStream> {
+    let stream = UnixStream::connect(path)
+        .with_context(|| format!("could not connect to Sway IPC at {}", path.display()))?;
+    stream.set_read_timeout(Some(read_timeout))?;
+    stream.set_write_timeout(Some(Duration::from_secs(3)))?;
+    Ok(stream)
+}
+
+fn request_on(stream: &mut (impl Read + Write), kind: u32, payload: &[u8]) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+    write_message(stream, kind, payload)?;
+    let (reply_kind, reply) = read_message(stream)?;
+    if reply_kind != kind {
+        bail!("unexpected Sway IPC reply type {reply_kind}, expected {kind}");
+    }
+    Ok(reply)
+}
+
+fn socket_path() -> Result<PathBuf> {
+    if let Some(path) = env::var_os("SWAYSOCK").or_else(|| env::var_os("I3SOCK")) {
+        return Ok(PathBuf::from(path));
+    }
+    let output = Command::new("sway")
+        .arg("--get-socketpath")
+        .output()
+        .context("SWAYSOCK is unset and sway --get-socketpath could not be executed")?;
+    if !output.status.success() {
+        bail!("sway --get-socketpath exited with {}", output.status);
+    }
+    let path = String::from_utf8(output.stdout)?.trim().to_owned();
+    if path.is_empty() {
+        bail!("sway --get-socketpath returned an empty path");
+    }
+    Ok(PathBuf::from(path))
+}
+
+fn write_message(stream: &mut impl Write, kind: u32, payload: &[u8]) -> Result<()> {
+    let length = u32::try_from(payload.len()).context("Sway IPC payload exceeds 4 GiB")?;
+    stream.write_all(MAGIC)?;
+    stream.write_all(&length.to_ne_bytes())?;
+    stream.write_all(&kind.to_ne_bytes())?;
+    stream.write_all(payload)?;
+    stream.flush()?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn read_message(stream: &mut impl Read) -> Result<(u32, Vec<u8>)> {
+    let mut header = [0_u8; 14];
+    stream.read_exact(&mut header)?;
+    if &header[..6] != MAGIC {
+        return Err(anyhow!("invalid Sway IPC magic"));
+    }
+    let length = u32::from_ne_bytes(header[6..10].try_into().expect("fixed header length"));
+    let kind = u32::from_ne_bytes(header[10..14].try_into().expect("fixed header length"));
+    if length > 64 * 1024 * 1024 {
+        bail!("Sway IPC payload exceeds 64 MiB safety limit");
+    }
+    let mut payload = vec![0_u8; length as usize];
+    stream.read_exact(&mut payload)?;
+    Ok((kind, payload))
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct Workspace {
+    num: i64,
+    name: String,
+    visible: bool,
+    focused: bool,
+    urgent: bool,
+    output: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct BindingState {
+    name: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct ModeEvent {
+    change: String,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct TreeNode {
+    #[serde(default)]
+    id: i64,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    name: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    app_id: Option<String>,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    nodes: Vec<TreeNode>,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    floating_nodes: Vec<TreeNode>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Deserialize)]
+struct CommandReply {
+    success: bool,
+    #[serde(default)]
+    error: Option<String>,
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    struct MemoryDuplex {
+        replies: std::io::Cursor<Vec<u8>>,
+        requests: Vec<u8>,
+    }
+
+    impl Read for MemoryDuplex {
+        fn read(&mut self, buffer: &mut [u8]) -> io::Result<usize> {
+            self.replies.read(buffer)
+        }
+    }
+
+    impl Write for MemoryDuplex {
+        fn write(&mut self, buffer: &[u8]) -> io::Result<usize> {
+            self.requests.extend_from_slice(buffer);
+            Ok(buffer.len())
+        }
+
+        fn flush(&mut self) -> io::Result<()> {
+            Ok(())
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn finds_nested_scratch_node() {
+        let root: TreeNode = serde_json::from_str(
+            r#"{"name":"root","nodes":[{"name":"__i3","nodes":[{"name":"__i3_scratch","floating_nodes":[{"name":"term"}]}]}]}"#,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let scratch = find_scratch_node(&root).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(scratch.floating_nodes[0].name.as_deref(), Some("term"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn round_trips_an_ipc_frame() {
+        let mut frame = Vec::new();
+        write_message(&mut frame, GET_WORKSPACES, br#"[{"name":"1"}]"#).unwrap();
+        let (kind, payload) = read_message(&mut std::io::Cursor::new(frame)).unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(kind, GET_WORKSPACES);
+        assert_eq!(payload, br#"[{"name":"1"}]"#);
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn reuses_a_control_connection_for_multiple_requests() {
+        let mut replies = Vec::new();
+        write_message(&mut replies, GET_WORKSPACES, br#"{"workspaces":true}"#).unwrap();
+        write_message(
+            &mut replies,
+            GET_BINDING_STATE,
+            br#"{"binding_state":true}"#,
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        let mut connection = MemoryDuplex {
+            replies: std::io::Cursor::new(replies),
+            requests: Vec::new(),
+        };
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            request_on(&mut connection, GET_WORKSPACES, b"").unwrap(),
+            br#"{"workspaces":true}"#
+        );
+        assert_eq!(
+            request_on(&mut connection, GET_BINDING_STATE, b"").unwrap(),
+            br#"{"binding_state":true}"#
+        );
+
+        let mut requests = std::io::Cursor::new(connection.requests);
+        for expected_kind in [GET_WORKSPACES, GET_BINDING_STATE] {
+            let (kind, payload) = read_message(&mut requests).unwrap();
+            assert_eq!(kind, expected_kind);
+            assert!(payload.is_empty());
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn disconnected_workspace_snapshot_preserves_focused_style() {
+        let snapshot = ModuleSnapshot {
+            segments: vec![Segment {
+                id: Some("2:web".to_owned()),
+                text: "2".to_owned(),
+                state: "focused".to_owned(),
+                output: Some("DP-1".to_owned()),
+                icon: None,
+            }],
+            visible: true,
+            ..ModuleSnapshot::default()
+        };
+
+        let disconnected = disconnected_workspace_snapshot(&snapshot);
+        assert!(!disconnected.stale);
+        assert!(disconnected.visible);
+        assert_eq!(disconnected.segments, snapshot.segments);
+        assert!(
+            disconnected
+                .tooltip
+                .as_deref()
+                .is_some_and(|tooltip| tooltip.contains("last known"))
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn ignores_unrelated_window_title_churn() {
+        assert!(!window_may_affect_scratchpad(
+            br#"{"change":"title","container":{"scratchpad_state":"none"}}"#
+        ));
+        assert!(window_may_affect_scratchpad(
+            br#"{"change":"title","container":{"scratchpad_state":"changed"}}"#
+        ));
+        assert!(window_may_affect_scratchpad(
+            br#"{"change":"move","container":{"scratchpad_state":"none"}}"#
+        ));
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/modules/sysfs.rs b/src/modules/sysfs.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..80c4cbd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/modules/sysfs.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,427 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::BTreeMap,
+    fs,
+    path::{Path, PathBuf},
+    process::Command,
+    sync::{
+        Arc,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread::{self, JoinHandle},
+    time::Duration,
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, bail};
+use calloop::channel::Sender;
+
+use crate::{
+    config::{BacklightModule, BatteryModule, TemperatureModule},
+    format::{Value, expand},
+    model::{ModuleEvent, ModuleSnapshot, PopupContent, PopupModel, PopupRow, SliderModel},
+};
+
+pub fn spawn_temperature(
+    name: String,
+    settings: TemperatureModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+) -> JoinHandle<()> {
+    spawn_polling(name, settings.interval.0, sender, stop, move || {
+        temperature_snapshot(&settings)
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn spawn_backlight(
+    name: String,
+    settings: BacklightModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+) -> JoinHandle<()> {
+    spawn_polling(name, Duration::from_secs(5), sender, stop, move || {
+        backlight_snapshot(&settings)
+    })
+}
+
+pub fn spawn_battery(
+    name: String,
+    settings: BatteryModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+) -> JoinHandle<()> {
+    spawn_polling(name, Duration::from_secs(30), sender, stop, move || {
+        battery_snapshot(&settings)
+    })
+}
+
+fn spawn_polling<F>(
+    name: String,
+    interval: Duration,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+    mut read: F,
+) -> JoinHandle<()>
+where
+    F: FnMut() -> Result<ModuleSnapshot> + Send + 'static,
+{
+    thread::Builder::new()
+        .name(format!("lightbar-sysfs-{name}"))
+        .spawn(move || {
+            let mut last_good: Option<ModuleSnapshot> = None;
+            let mut failures = 0_u32;
+            while !stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                let snapshot = match read() {
+                    Ok(snapshot) => {
+                        failures = 0;
+                        last_good = Some(snapshot.clone());
+                        snapshot
+                    }
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        failures = failures.saturating_add(1);
+                        tracing::debug!(module = %name, %error, "sysfs module update failed");
+                        let mut stale = last_good.clone().unwrap_or_default();
+                        stale.stale = last_good.is_some();
+                        stale
+                    }
+                };
+                if sender
+                    .send(ModuleEvent {
+                        module: name.clone(),
+                        snapshot,
+                    })
+                    .is_err()
+                {
+                    break;
+                }
+                let retry = if failures == 0 {
+                    interval
+                } else {
+                    super::process::backoff(failures).min(interval)
+                };
+                thread::park_timeout(retry);
+            }
+        })
+        .expect("sysfs worker thread")
+}
+
+fn temperature_snapshot(settings: &TemperatureModule) -> Result<ModuleSnapshot> {
+    let sensor = settings
+        .sensor
+        .clone()
+        .map_or_else(|| discover_temperature(settings.label.as_deref()), Ok)?;
+    let raw = read_number(&sensor)?;
+    let temperature = if raw.abs() > 1_000.0 {
+        raw / 1_000.0
+    } else {
+        raw
+    };
+    let text = expand(
+        &settings.format,
+        &BTreeMap::from([("temperature_c", Value::from(temperature))]),
+    );
+    let state = if temperature >= settings.critical_c {
+        "critical"
+    } else if temperature >= settings.warning_c {
+        "warning"
+    } else {
+        "normal"
+    };
+    let mut snapshot = ModuleSnapshot::text(text).with_state(state);
+    snapshot.tooltip = Some(format!("{}: {temperature:.1}°C", sensor.display()));
+    snapshot.popup = Some(PopupModel {
+        title: "Temperature".to_owned(),
+        content: PopupContent::Rows(vec![PopupRow {
+            id: None,
+            label: sensor.display().to_string(),
+            detail: Some(format!("{temperature:.1}°C")),
+            state: state.to_owned(),
+            enabled: false,
+        }]),
+    });
+    Ok(snapshot)
+}
+
+fn discover_temperature(label: Option<&str>) -> Result<PathBuf> {
+    let mut candidates = Vec::new();
+    for hwmon in read_dirs(Path::new("/sys/class/hwmon"))? {
+        let chip = read_trimmed(&hwmon.join("name")).unwrap_or_default();
+        for input in read_dirs(&hwmon)?.into_iter().filter(|path| {
+            path.file_name()
+                .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+                .is_some_and(|name| name.starts_with("temp") && name.ends_with("_input"))
+        }) {
+            let base = input
+                .file_name()
+                .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+                .and_then(|name| name.strip_suffix("_input"))
+                .unwrap_or_default();
+            let sensor_label =
+                read_trimmed(&hwmon.join(format!("{base}_label"))).unwrap_or_default();
+            if label.is_some_and(|wanted| {
+                !sensor_label.eq_ignore_ascii_case(wanted) && !chip.eq_ignore_ascii_case(wanted)
+            }) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let score = temperature_score(&chip, &sensor_label);
+            candidates.push((score, input));
+        }
+    }
+    candidates
+        .into_iter()
+        .max_by_key(|(score, _)| *score)
+        .map(|(_, path)| path)
+        .context("no hwmon temperature sensor found")
+}
+
+fn temperature_score(chip: &str, label: &str) -> u8 {
+    let combined = format!("{chip} {label}").to_ascii_lowercase();
+    if combined.contains("package") || combined.contains("tctl") {
+        3
+    } else if combined.contains("coretemp") || combined.contains("k10temp") {
+        2
+    } else {
+        1
+    }
+}
+
+fn backlight_snapshot(settings: &BacklightModule) -> Result<ModuleSnapshot> {
+    let device = discover_backlight(settings.device.as_deref())?;
+    let current = read_number(&device.join("actual_brightness"))
+        .or_else(|_| read_number(&device.join("brightness")))?;
+    let maximum = read_number(&device.join("max_brightness"))?;
+    if maximum <= 0.0 {
+        bail!("backlight maximum is zero");
+    }
+    let percent = (current / maximum * 100.0).round().clamp(0.0, 100.0) as i64;
+    let text = expand(
+        &settings.format,
+        &BTreeMap::from([("percent", Value::from(percent))]),
+    );
+    let mut snapshot = ModuleSnapshot::text(text);
+    snapshot.tooltip = Some(format!("Backlight: {percent}%"));
+    snapshot.popup = Some(PopupModel {
+        title: "Backlight".to_owned(),
+        content: PopupContent::Slider(SliderModel {
+            label: device
+                .file_name()
+                .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+                .unwrap_or("Backlight")
+                .to_owned(),
+            value: f64::from(percent as i32),
+            minimum: 0.0,
+            maximum: 100.0,
+            muted: false,
+            detail_rows: Vec::new(),
+        }),
+    });
+    Ok(snapshot)
+}
+
+pub fn adjust_backlight(settings: &BacklightModule, delta_percent: i16) -> Result<()> {
+    let device = discover_backlight(settings.device.as_deref())?;
+    let current = read_number(&device.join("brightness"))?;
+    let maximum = read_number(&device.join("max_brightness"))?;
+    let delta = maximum * f64::from(delta_percent) / 100.0;
+    let value = (current + delta).round().clamp(1.0, maximum) as u64;
+    set_backlight_value(&device, value)
+}
+
+pub fn set_backlight_percent(settings: &BacklightModule, percent: f64) -> Result<()> {
+    let device = discover_backlight(settings.device.as_deref())?;
+    let maximum = read_number(&device.join("max_brightness"))?;
+    let value = (maximum * percent.clamp(0.0, 100.0) / 100.0)
+        .round()
+        .clamp(1.0, maximum) as u64;
+    set_backlight_value(&device, value)
+}
+
+fn set_backlight_value(device: &Path, value: u64) -> Result<()> {
+    let brightness = device.join("brightness");
+    if fs::write(&brightness, value.to_string()).is_ok() {
+        return Ok(());
+    }
+
+    let device_name = device
+        .file_name()
+        .and_then(|name| name.to_str())
+        .context("backlight device has no UTF-8 name")?;
+    let status = Command::new("busctl")
+        .args([
+            "--system",
+            "call",
+            "org.freedesktop.login1",
+            "/org/freedesktop/login1/session/self",
+            "org.freedesktop.login1.Session",
+            "SetBrightness",
+            "ssu",
+            "backlight",
+            device_name,
+            &value.to_string(),
+        ])
+        .status()
+        .context("could not invoke logind SetBrightness")?;
+    if !status.success() {
+        bail!("logind SetBrightness exited with {status}");
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+fn discover_backlight(device: Option<&str>) -> Result<PathBuf> {
+    let root = Path::new("/sys/class/backlight");
+    if let Some(device) = device {
+        let path = root.join(device);
+        if path.is_dir() {
+            return Ok(path);
+        }
+        bail!(
+            "configured backlight device {} does not exist",
+            path.display()
+        );
+    }
+    read_dirs(root)?
+        .into_iter()
+        .max_by(|left, right| {
+            read_number(&left.join("max_brightness"))
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+                .total_cmp(&read_number(&right.join("max_brightness")).unwrap_or_default())
+        })
+        .context("no backlight device found")
+}
+
+fn battery_snapshot(settings: &BatteryModule) -> Result<ModuleSnapshot> {
+    let battery = discover_battery()?;
+    let percent = read_number(&battery.join("capacity"))?
+        .round()
+        .clamp(0.0, 100.0) as u8;
+    let status = read_trimmed(&battery.join("status")).unwrap_or_else(|_| "Unknown".to_owned());
+    let icon = battery_icon(percent);
+    let values = BTreeMap::from([
+        ("percent", Value::from(percent)),
+        ("status", Value::from(status.clone())),
+        ("icon", Value::from(icon)),
+    ]);
+    let format = if percent >= 99 {
+        &settings.full_format
+    } else {
+        &settings.format
+    };
+    let state = if percent <= settings.critical_percent {
+        "critical"
+    } else if percent <= settings.warning_percent {
+        "warning"
+    } else {
+        "normal"
+    };
+    let mut snapshot = ModuleSnapshot::text(expand(format, &values)).with_state(state);
+    let time = estimated_battery_time(&battery, &status);
+    snapshot.tooltip = Some(match time.as_deref() {
+        Some(time) => format!("{status}: {percent}% · {time}"),
+        None => format!("{status}: {percent}%"),
+    });
+    snapshot.popup = Some(PopupModel {
+        title: "Battery".to_owned(),
+        content: PopupContent::Rows(vec![
+            PopupRow {
+                id: None,
+                label: "Charge".to_owned(),
+                detail: Some(format!("{percent}%")),
+                state: state.to_owned(),
+                enabled: false,
+            },
+            PopupRow {
+                id: None,
+                label: "Status".to_owned(),
+                detail: Some(status),
+                state: "normal".to_owned(),
+                enabled: false,
+            },
+            PopupRow {
+                id: None,
+                label: "Estimate".to_owned(),
+                detail: time,
+                state: "normal".to_owned(),
+                enabled: false,
+            },
+        ]),
+    });
+    Ok(snapshot)
+}
+
+fn discover_battery() -> Result<PathBuf> {
+    read_dirs(Path::new("/sys/class/power_supply"))?
+        .into_iter()
+        .find(|path| {
+            read_trimmed(&path.join("type")).is_ok_and(|kind| kind.eq_ignore_ascii_case("battery"))
+        })
+        .context("no battery power supply found")
+}
+
+fn battery_icon(percent: u8) -> &'static str {
+    match percent {
+        0..=10 => "",
+        11..=35 => "",
+        36..=60 => "",
+        61..=85 => "",
+        _ => "",
+    }
+}
+
+fn estimated_battery_time(battery: &Path, status: &str) -> Option<String> {
+    let power = read_number(&battery.join("power_now")).ok()?;
+    if power <= 0.0 {
+        return None;
+    }
+    let energy = if status.eq_ignore_ascii_case("charging") {
+        read_number(&battery.join("energy_full")).ok()?
+            - read_number(&battery.join("energy_now")).ok()?
+    } else {
+        read_number(&battery.join("energy_now")).ok()?
+    };
+    let hours = (energy / power).max(0.0);
+    let total_minutes = (hours * 60.0).round() as u64;
+    Some(format!(
+        "{}h {:02}m",
+        total_minutes / 60,
+        total_minutes % 60
+    ))
+}
+
+fn read_dirs(path: &Path) -> Result<Vec<PathBuf>> {
+    let mut paths = Vec::new();
+    for entry in fs::read_dir(path).with_context(|| format!("cannot read {}", path.display()))? {
+        let entry = entry?;
+        paths.push(entry.path());
+    }
+    Ok(paths)
+}
+
+fn read_trimmed(path: &Path) -> Result<String> {
+    Ok(fs::read_to_string(path)
+        .with_context(|| format!("cannot read {}", path.display()))?
+        .trim()
+        .to_owned())
+}
+
+fn read_number(path: &Path) -> Result<f64> {
+    read_trimmed(path)?
+        .parse()
+        .with_context(|| format!("{} does not contain a number", path.display()))
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn chooses_expected_battery_icons() {
+        assert_eq!(battery_icon(5), "");
+        assert_eq!(battery_icon(50), "");
+        assert_eq!(battery_icon(100), "");
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn scores_cpu_package_sensors_first() {
+        assert!(
+            temperature_score("coretemp", "Package id 0") > temperature_score("acpitz", "temp1")
+        );
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/modules/tray.rs b/src/modules/tray.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..75c4059
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/modules/tray.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,751 @@
+use std::{
+    collections::{BTreeMap, BTreeSet},
+    sync::{
+        Arc, Mutex,
+        atomic::{AtomicBool, Ordering},
+    },
+    thread::{self, JoinHandle},
+    time::Duration,
+};
+
+use anyhow::{Context, Result, anyhow};
+use calloop::channel::Sender;
+use futures_lite::StreamExt;
+use tokio::sync::mpsc;
+use zbus::{
+    Connection, MatchRule, MessageStream, Proxy,
+    fdo::{DBusProxy, NameOwnerChanged},
+    message::{Header, Type},
+    names::BusName,
+    object_server::SignalEmitter,
+};
+
+use crate::{
+    config::TrayModule,
+    model::{IconPixmap, ModuleEvent, ModuleSnapshot, PopupContent, PopupModel, PopupRow, Segment},
+};
+
+const WATCHER_SERVICE: &str = "org.kde.StatusNotifierWatcher";
+const WATCHER_PATH: &str = "/StatusNotifierWatcher";
+const WATCHER_INTERFACE: &str = "org.kde.StatusNotifierWatcher";
+const ITEM_INTERFACE: &str = "org.kde.StatusNotifierItem";
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, Ord, PartialEq, PartialOrd)]
+struct TrayAddress {
+    service: String,
+    path: String,
+}
+
+impl TrayAddress {
+    fn parse(registered: &str) -> Option<Self> {
+        if registered.starts_with('/') {
+            return None;
+        }
+        let (service, path) = registered.find('/').map_or_else(
+            || (registered, "/StatusNotifierItem"),
+            |index| (&registered[..index], &registered[index..]),
+        );
+        (!service.is_empty() && path.starts_with('/')).then(|| Self {
+            service: service.to_owned(),
+            path: path.to_owned(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn id(&self) -> String {
+        format!("{}|{}", self.service, self.path)
+    }
+
+    fn from_id(id: &str) -> Option<Self> {
+        let (service, path) = id.split_once('|')?;
+        (!service.is_empty() && path.starts_with('/')).then(|| Self {
+            service: service.to_owned(),
+            path: path.to_owned(),
+        })
+    }
+
+    fn registered_name(&self) -> String {
+        if self.path == "/StatusNotifierItem" {
+            self.service.clone()
+        } else {
+            format!("{}{}", self.service, self.path)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone)]
+enum RegistryEvent {
+    Changed,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+struct ItemRegistration {
+    owner: String,
+    service: String,
+}
+
+type ItemRegistry = Arc<Mutex<BTreeMap<String, ItemRegistration>>>;
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+struct Watcher {
+    items: ItemRegistry,
+    hosts: Arc<Mutex<BTreeSet<String>>>,
+    changed: mpsc::Sender<RegistryEvent>,
+}
+
+#[zbus::interface(name = "org.kde.StatusNotifierWatcher")]
+impl Watcher {
+    async fn register_status_notifier_item(
+        &self,
+        service_or_path: String,
+        #[zbus(header)] header: Header<'_>,
+        #[zbus(signal_emitter)] emitter: SignalEmitter<'_>,
+    ) -> zbus::fdo::Result<()> {
+        let sender = header
+            .sender()
+            .map(ToString::to_string)
+            .ok_or_else(|| zbus::fdo::Error::Failed("registration has no sender".to_owned()))?;
+        let owner = sender.clone();
+        let address = if service_or_path.starts_with('/') {
+            TrayAddress {
+                service: sender,
+                path: service_or_path,
+            }
+        } else {
+            TrayAddress {
+                service: service_or_path,
+                path: "/StatusNotifierItem".to_owned(),
+            }
+        };
+        let registered = address.registered_name();
+        let registration = ItemRegistration {
+            owner,
+            service: address.service,
+        };
+        let previous = self
+            .items
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| zbus::fdo::Error::Failed("watcher lock poisoned".to_owned()))?
+            .insert(registered.clone(), registration.clone());
+        let inserted = previous.is_none();
+        let changed = previous.as_ref() != Some(&registration);
+        if inserted {
+            Self::status_notifier_item_registered(&emitter, &registered).await?;
+        }
+        if changed {
+            let _ = self.changed.try_send(RegistryEvent::Changed);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    async fn register_status_notifier_host(
+        &self,
+        service: String,
+        #[zbus(signal_emitter)] emitter: SignalEmitter<'_>,
+    ) -> zbus::fdo::Result<()> {
+        let inserted = self
+            .hosts
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| zbus::fdo::Error::Failed("watcher lock poisoned".to_owned()))?
+            .insert(service.clone());
+        if inserted {
+            Self::status_notifier_host_registered(&emitter).await?;
+            let _ = self.changed.try_send(RegistryEvent::Changed);
+        }
+        Ok(())
+    }
+
+    #[zbus(property, name = "RegisteredStatusNotifierItems")]
+    fn registered_status_notifier_items(&self) -> Vec<String> {
+        self.items
+            .lock()
+            .map_or_else(|_| Vec::new(), |items| items.keys().cloned().collect())
+    }
+
+    #[zbus(property, name = "IsStatusNotifierHostRegistered")]
+    fn is_status_notifier_host_registered(&self) -> bool {
+        self.hosts.lock().is_ok_and(|hosts| !hosts.is_empty())
+    }
+
+    #[zbus(property, name = "ProtocolVersion")]
+    fn protocol_version(&self) -> i32 {
+        0
+    }
+
+    #[zbus(signal, name = "StatusNotifierItemRegistered")]
+    async fn status_notifier_item_registered(
+        emitter: &SignalEmitter<'_>,
+        service: &str,
+    ) -> zbus::Result<()>;
+
+    #[zbus(signal, name = "StatusNotifierItemUnregistered")]
+    async fn status_notifier_item_unregistered(
+        emitter: &SignalEmitter<'_>,
+        service: &str,
+    ) -> zbus::Result<()>;
+
+    #[zbus(signal, name = "StatusNotifierHostRegistered")]
+    async fn status_notifier_host_registered(emitter: &SignalEmitter<'_>) -> zbus::Result<()>;
+}
+
+pub fn spawn(
+    module: String,
+    settings: TrayModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+) -> JoinHandle<()> {
+    thread::Builder::new()
+        .name(format!("lightbar-tray-{module}"))
+        .spawn(move || {
+            let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .enable_all()
+                .build();
+            let result = runtime
+                .context("could not create tray runtime")
+                .and_then(|runtime| runtime.block_on(run(module.clone(), settings, sender, stop)));
+            if let Err(error) = result {
+                tracing::warn!(module, error = %format_args!("{error:#}"), "tray stopped");
+            }
+        })
+        .expect("tray worker thread")
+}
+
+async fn run(
+    module: String,
+    settings: TrayModule,
+    sender: Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+    stop: Arc<AtomicBool>,
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let connection = Connection::session()
+        .await
+        .context("could not connect to the session D-Bus")?;
+    let (registry_sender, mut registry_receiver) = mpsc::channel(32);
+    let owned_items = ensure_watcher(&connection, registry_sender).await?;
+
+    let host_name = format!("org.kde.StatusNotifierHost-{}-1", std::process::id());
+    connection
+        .request_name(host_name.as_str())
+        .await
+        .context("could not own the StatusNotifierHost bus name")?;
+    let watcher = watcher_proxy(&connection).await?;
+    watcher
+        .call::<_, _, ()>("RegisterStatusNotifierHost", &(host_name.clone()))
+        .await
+        .context("watcher rejected StatusNotifierHost registration")?;
+
+    let watcher_rule = MatchRule::builder()
+        .msg_type(Type::Signal)
+        .interface(WATCHER_INTERFACE)?
+        .build();
+    let item_rule = MatchRule::builder()
+        .msg_type(Type::Signal)
+        .interface(ITEM_INTERFACE)?
+        .build();
+    let properties_rule = MatchRule::builder()
+        .msg_type(Type::Signal)
+        .interface("org.freedesktop.DBus.Properties")?
+        .member("PropertiesChanged")?
+        .add_arg(ITEM_INTERFACE)?
+        .build();
+    let owner_rule = MatchRule::builder()
+        .msg_type(Type::Signal)
+        .sender("org.freedesktop.DBus")?
+        .interface("org.freedesktop.DBus")?
+        .member("NameOwnerChanged")?
+        .build();
+    let mut watcher_signals = MessageStream::for_match_rule(watcher_rule, &connection, Some(64))
+        .await
+        .context("could not subscribe to tray watcher changes")?;
+    let mut item_signals = MessageStream::for_match_rule(item_rule, &connection, Some(128))
+        .await
+        .context("could not subscribe to tray item changes")?;
+    let mut property_signals =
+        MessageStream::for_match_rule(properties_rule, &connection, Some(128))
+            .await
+            .context("could not subscribe to tray property changes")?;
+    let mut owner_signals = MessageStream::for_match_rule(owner_rule, &connection, Some(128))
+        .await
+        .context("could not subscribe to D-Bus owner changes")?;
+    let mut reconcile = tokio::time::interval(Duration::from_secs(30));
+    let mut stop_check = tokio::time::interval(Duration::from_millis(250));
+
+    publish(&connection, &module, &settings, &sender).await;
+    loop {
+        tokio::select! {
+            _ = stop_check.tick() => {
+                if stop.load(Ordering::Acquire) {
+                    break;
+                }
+                continue;
+            }
+            _ = reconcile.tick() => {}
+            event = registry_receiver.recv() => {
+                if event.is_none() {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            event = watcher_signals.next() => {
+                if event.is_none() {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            event = item_signals.next() => {
+                if event.is_none() {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            event = property_signals.next() => {
+                if event.is_none() {
+                    break;
+                }
+            }
+            event = owner_signals.next() => {
+                let Some(event) = event else {
+                    break;
+                };
+                let Some(vanished) = event.ok().and_then(vanished_bus_name) else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                let Some(items) = &owned_items else {
+                    continue;
+                };
+                match unregister_vanished_items(&connection, items, &vanished).await {
+                    Ok(0) => continue,
+                    Ok(count) => {
+                        tracing::debug!(%vanished, count, "removed vanished tray items");
+                    }
+                    Err(error) => {
+                        tracing::warn!(%vanished, %error, "could not unregister vanished tray items");
+                        continue;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        // Collapse icon/property signal bursts into a single bounded refresh.
+        tokio::time::sleep(Duration::from_millis(30)).await;
+        publish(&connection, &module, &settings, &sender).await;
+    }
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+async fn ensure_watcher(
+    connection: &Connection,
+    changed: mpsc::Sender<RegistryEvent>,
+) -> Result<Option<ItemRegistry>> {
+    if watcher_proxy(connection)
+        .await?
+        .get_property::<i32>("ProtocolVersion")
+        .await
+        .is_ok()
+    {
+        tracing::debug!("using existing StatusNotifierWatcher");
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let items = Arc::new(Mutex::new(BTreeMap::new()));
+    let watcher = Watcher {
+        items: items.clone(),
+        hosts: Arc::new(Mutex::new(BTreeSet::new())),
+        changed,
+    };
+    connection
+        .object_server()
+        .at(WATCHER_PATH, watcher)
+        .await
+        .context("could not export StatusNotifierWatcher")?;
+    connection
+        .request_name(WATCHER_SERVICE)
+        .await
+        .context("could not own StatusNotifierWatcher")?;
+    tracing::info!("providing StatusNotifierWatcher");
+    Ok(Some(items))
+}
+
+fn vanished_bus_name(message: zbus::Message) -> Option<String> {
+    let signal = NameOwnerChanged::from_message(message)?;
+    let args = signal.args().ok()?;
+    args.new_owner()
+        .as_ref()
+        .is_none()
+        .then(|| args.name().as_str().to_owned())
+}
+
+async fn unregister_vanished_items(
+    connection: &Connection,
+    items: &ItemRegistry,
+    vanished: &str,
+) -> Result<usize> {
+    let removed = {
+        let mut items = items
+            .lock()
+            .map_err(|_| anyhow!("watcher item registry lock poisoned"))?;
+        remove_registrations_for_name(&mut items, vanished)
+    };
+    if removed.is_empty() {
+        return Ok(0);
+    }
+
+    let emitter = SignalEmitter::new(connection, WATCHER_PATH)?;
+    for registered in &removed {
+        Watcher::status_notifier_item_unregistered(&emitter, registered).await?;
+    }
+    Ok(removed.len())
+}
+
+fn remove_registrations_for_name(
+    items: &mut BTreeMap<String, ItemRegistration>,
+    vanished: &str,
+) -> Vec<String> {
+    let mut removed = Vec::new();
+    items.retain(|registered, registration| {
+        let keep = registration.owner != vanished && registration.service != vanished;
+        if !keep {
+            removed.push(registered.clone());
+        }
+        keep
+    });
+    removed
+}
+
+async fn watcher_proxy(connection: &Connection) -> Result<Proxy<'_>> {
+    Proxy::new(connection, WATCHER_SERVICE, WATCHER_PATH, WATCHER_INTERFACE)
+        .await
+        .map_err(Into::into)
+}
+
+async fn publish(
+    connection: &Connection,
+    module: &str,
+    settings: &TrayModule,
+    sender: &Sender<ModuleEvent>,
+) {
+    match tokio::time::timeout(
+        Duration::from_secs(2),
+        collect_snapshot(connection, settings),
+    )
+    .await
+    {
+        Ok(Ok(snapshot)) => {
+            let _ = sender.send(ModuleEvent {
+                module: module.to_owned(),
+                snapshot,
+            });
+        }
+        Ok(Err(error)) => tracing::warn!(%error, "could not refresh tray"),
+        Err(_) => tracing::warn!("tray refresh exceeded two seconds"),
+    }
+}
+
+async fn collect_snapshot(
+    connection: &Connection,
+    settings: &TrayModule,
+) -> Result<ModuleSnapshot> {
+    let registered = watcher_proxy(connection)
+        .await?
+        .get_property::<Vec<String>>("RegisteredStatusNotifierItems")
+        .await
+        .context("could not read registered tray items")?;
+    let mut addresses: BTreeSet<_> = registered
+        .iter()
+        .filter_map(|item| TrayAddress::parse(item))
+        .collect();
+    let dbus = DBusProxy::new(connection).await?;
+    let mut segments = Vec::new();
+    let mut rows = Vec::new();
+    for address in &addresses {
+        let bus_name = match BusName::try_from(address.service.as_str()) {
+            Ok(name) => name,
+            Err(error) => {
+                tracing::debug!(service = %address.service, %error, "ignoring invalid tray service name");
+                continue;
+            }
+        };
+        match dbus.name_has_owner(bus_name).await {
+            Ok(false) => {
+                tracing::debug!(service = %address.service, "ignoring vanished tray item");
+                continue;
+            }
+            Ok(true) => {}
+            Err(error) => {
+                tracing::debug!(service = %address.service, %error, "could not verify tray item owner");
+            }
+        }
+        match read_item(connection, address, settings).await {
+            Ok(Some((segment, row))) => {
+                segments.push(segment);
+                rows.push(row);
+            }
+            Ok(None) => {}
+            Err(error) => {
+                tracing::debug!(service = %address.service, %error, "ignoring broken tray item");
+            }
+        }
+    }
+    // Deduplicate watcher bugs and ensure the set cannot grow while iterating.
+    addresses.clear();
+    Ok(ModuleSnapshot {
+        visible: !segments.is_empty(),
+        segments,
+        tooltip: (!rows.is_empty()).then(|| {
+            rows.iter()
+                .map(|row| row.label.as_str())
+                .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+                .join("\n")
+        }),
+        popup: (!rows.is_empty()).then(|| PopupModel {
+            title: "System tray".to_owned(),
+            content: PopupContent::Rows(rows),
+        }),
+        stale: false,
+    })
+}
+
+async fn read_item(
+    connection: &Connection,
+    address: &TrayAddress,
+    settings: &TrayModule,
+) -> Result<Option<(Segment, PopupRow)>> {
+    let proxy = Proxy::new(
+        connection,
+        address.service.as_str(),
+        address.path.as_str(),
+        ITEM_INTERFACE,
+    )
+    .await?;
+    let status = proxy
+        .get_property::<String>("Status")
+        .await
+        .context("tray item has no readable Status property")?;
+    if status == "Passive" {
+        return Ok(None);
+    }
+    let title = proxy
+        .get_property::<String>("Title")
+        .await
+        .unwrap_or_else(|_| address.service.clone());
+    let icon_name = proxy
+        .get_property::<String>("IconName")
+        .await
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    let pixmaps = proxy
+        .get_property::<Vec<(i32, i32, Vec<u8>)>>("IconPixmap")
+        .await
+        .unwrap_or_default();
+    let icon = choose_pixmap(pixmaps, settings)?;
+    let mut segment = Segment::new(if icon.is_some() {
+        String::new()
+    } else if icon_name.is_empty() {
+        "●".to_owned()
+    } else {
+        // Keep a deterministic, font-renderable fallback when an item only
+        // exports a theme icon name. Pixmap-exporting items use the real icon.
+        "●".to_owned()
+    });
+    segment.id = Some(address.id());
+    segment.state = if status == "NeedsAttention" {
+        "urgent".to_owned()
+    } else {
+        "normal".to_owned()
+    };
+    segment.icon = icon;
+    let row = PopupRow {
+        id: Some(address.id()),
+        label: title,
+        detail: (!icon_name.is_empty()).then_some(icon_name),
+        state: segment.state.clone(),
+        enabled: true,
+    };
+    Ok(Some((segment, row)))
+}
+
+fn choose_pixmap(
+    pixmaps: Vec<(i32, i32, Vec<u8>)>,
+    settings: &TrayModule,
+) -> Result<Option<IconPixmap>> {
+    let target = i64::from(settings.icon_size);
+    let selected = pixmaps
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter(|(width, height, bytes)| {
+            if *width <= 0 || *height <= 0 || *width > 512 || *height > 512 {
+                return false;
+            }
+            let expected = i64::from(*width)
+                .checked_mul(i64::from(*height))
+                .and_then(|pixels| pixels.checked_mul(4));
+            expected.is_some_and(|expected| {
+                usize::try_from(expected).ok() == Some(bytes.len())
+                    && bytes.len() <= settings.pixmap_max_bytes
+            })
+        })
+        .min_by_key(|(width, height, _)| {
+            (i64::from(*width) - target).abs() + (i64::from(*height) - target).abs()
+        });
+    let Some((width, height, argb)) = selected else {
+        return Ok(None);
+    };
+    let mut pixels = Vec::with_capacity(argb.len());
+    for pixel in argb.chunks_exact(4) {
+        let alpha = pixel[0];
+        let premultiply = |channel: u8| {
+            u8::try_from((u16::from(channel) * u16::from(alpha) + 127) / 255).unwrap_or(u8::MAX)
+        };
+        pixels.extend_from_slice(&[
+            premultiply(pixel[3]),
+            premultiply(pixel[2]),
+            premultiply(pixel[1]),
+            alpha,
+        ]);
+    }
+    Ok(Some(IconPixmap {
+        width: u32::try_from(width).map_err(|_| anyhow!("negative tray pixmap width"))?,
+        height: u32::try_from(height).map_err(|_| anyhow!("negative tray pixmap height"))?,
+        pixels,
+    }))
+}
+
+pub fn activate_tray_item(id: &str, method: &'static str, x: i32, y: i32) -> Result<()> {
+    let address = TrayAddress::from_id(id).context("invalid tray item identity")?;
+    thread::Builder::new()
+        .name("lightbar-tray-action".to_owned())
+        .spawn(move || {
+            let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .enable_all()
+                .build();
+            let result: Result<()> = match runtime {
+                Ok(runtime) => runtime
+                    .block_on(async move {
+                        let connection = Connection::session().await?;
+                        let proxy =
+                            Proxy::new(&connection, address.service, address.path, ITEM_INTERFACE)
+                                .await?;
+                        tokio::time::timeout(
+                            Duration::from_secs(2),
+                            proxy.call::<_, _, ()>(method, &(x, y)),
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|_| zbus::Error::Failure("tray action timed out".to_owned()))??;
+                        Ok::<_, zbus::Error>(())
+                    })
+                    .map_err(Into::into),
+                Err(error) => Err(error.into()),
+            };
+            if let Err(error) = result {
+                tracing::warn!(%error, method, "tray action failed");
+            }
+        })
+        .context("could not start tray action")?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+pub fn scroll_tray_item(id: &str, delta: i32, orientation: &'static str) -> Result<()> {
+    let address = TrayAddress::from_id(id).context("invalid tray item identity")?;
+    thread::Builder::new()
+        .name("lightbar-tray-scroll".to_owned())
+        .spawn(move || {
+            let runtime = tokio::runtime::Builder::new_current_thread()
+                .enable_all()
+                .build();
+            let result: Result<()> = match runtime {
+                Ok(runtime) => runtime
+                    .block_on(async move {
+                        let connection = Connection::session().await?;
+                        let proxy =
+                            Proxy::new(&connection, address.service, address.path, ITEM_INTERFACE)
+                                .await?;
+                        tokio::time::timeout(
+                            Duration::from_secs(2),
+                            proxy.call::<_, _, ()>("Scroll", &(delta, orientation)),
+                        )
+                        .await
+                        .map_err(|_| zbus::Error::Failure("tray scroll timed out".to_owned()))??;
+                        Ok::<_, zbus::Error>(())
+                    })
+                    .map_err(Into::into),
+                Err(error) => Err(error.into()),
+            };
+            if let Err(error) = result {
+                tracing::warn!(%error, "tray scroll failed");
+            }
+        })
+        .context("could not start tray scroll action")?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn parses_registered_item_forms() {
+        assert_eq!(
+            TrayAddress::parse("org.example.Item").unwrap().path,
+            "/StatusNotifierItem"
+        );
+        let item = TrayAddress::parse(":1.42/Custom/Item").unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(item.service, ":1.42");
+        assert_eq!(TrayAddress::from_id(&item.id()), Some(item));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn rejects_oversized_and_converts_argb() {
+        let settings = TrayModule::default();
+        let icon = choose_pixmap(vec![(1, 1, vec![128, 255, 0, 0])], &settings)
+            .unwrap()
+            .unwrap();
+        assert_eq!(icon.pixels, vec![0, 0, 128, 128]);
+        assert!(
+            choose_pixmap(vec![(1024, 1024, vec![0; 4])], &settings)
+                .unwrap()
+                .is_none()
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn removes_all_registrations_owned_by_a_vanished_bus_connection() {
+        let mut items = BTreeMap::from([
+            (
+                ":1.10".to_owned(),
+                ItemRegistration {
+                    owner: ":1.10".to_owned(),
+                    service: ":1.10".to_owned(),
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "org.example.First".to_owned(),
+                ItemRegistration {
+                    owner: ":1.10".to_owned(),
+                    service: "org.example.First".to_owned(),
+                },
+            ),
+            (
+                "org.example.Other".to_owned(),
+                ItemRegistration {
+                    owner: ":1.11".to_owned(),
+                    service: "org.example.Other".to_owned(),
+                },
+            ),
+        ]);
+
+        let removed = remove_registrations_for_name(&mut items, ":1.10");
+        assert_eq!(removed.len(), 2);
+        assert!(removed.contains(&":1.10".to_owned()));
+        assert!(removed.contains(&"org.example.First".to_owned()));
+        assert_eq!(items.len(), 1);
+        assert!(items.contains_key("org.example.Other"));
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn removes_registration_when_its_well_known_name_is_released() {
+        let mut items = BTreeMap::from([(
+            "org.example.Tray".to_owned(),
+            ItemRegistration {
+                owner: ":1.20".to_owned(),
+                service: "org.example.Tray".to_owned(),
+            },
+        )]);
+
+        assert_eq!(
+            remove_registrations_for_name(&mut items, "org.example.Tray"),
+            vec!["org.example.Tray".to_owned()]
+        );
+        assert!(items.is_empty());
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/render.rs b/src/render.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..30ef19c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/render.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,1201 @@
+use std::collections::{BTreeMap, VecDeque};
+
+use cosmic_text::{Attrs, Buffer, Color, Family, FontSystem, Metrics, Shaping, SwashCache};
+
+use crate::{
+    config::{Config, ModuleConfig, Rgba, Style, Theme},
+    model::{IconPixmap, ModuleSnapshot, ModuleStore, PopupContent, PopupModel},
+};
+
+#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, Default, PartialEq)]
+pub struct Rect {
+    pub x: f64,
+    pub y: f64,
+    pub width: f64,
+    pub height: f64,
+}
+
+impl Rect {
+    pub fn contains(self, x: f64, y: f64) -> bool {
+        x >= self.x && y >= self.y && x < self.x + self.width && y < self.y + self.height
+    }
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq)]
+pub struct HitBox {
+    pub rect: Rect,
+    pub module: String,
+    pub segment: Option<String>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+struct RenderSegment {
+    module: String,
+    segment: Option<String>,
+    text: String,
+    icon: Option<IconPixmap>,
+    style: Style,
+    rect: Rect,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Default)]
+pub struct RenderResult {
+    pub hit_boxes: Vec<HitBox>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug)]
+pub struct Renderer {
+    font_system: FontSystem,
+    swash_cache: SwashCache,
+    text_width_cache: VecDeque<(TextWidthKey, f64)>,
+    segment_cache: VecDeque<(SegmentCacheKey, Vec<u8>)>,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+struct TextWidthKey {
+    text: String,
+    logical_height_bits: u64,
+    scale: u32,
+    font_family: String,
+    font_size_bits: u32,
+}
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, Eq, PartialEq)]
+struct SegmentCacheKey {
+    width: u32,
+    height: u32,
+    scale: u32,
+    text: String,
+    icon: Option<IconPixmap>,
+    style: Style,
+    font_family: String,
+    font_size_bits: u32,
+}
+
+impl Default for Renderer {
+    fn default() -> Self {
+        Self {
+            font_system: FontSystem::new(),
+            swash_cache: SwashCache::new(),
+            text_width_cache: VecDeque::new(),
+            segment_cache: VecDeque::new(),
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Renderer {
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub fn render_bar(
+        &mut self,
+        canvas: &mut [u8],
+        physical_width: u32,
+        physical_height: u32,
+        scale: u32,
+        output: &str,
+        config: &Config,
+        theme: &Theme,
+        modules: &ModuleStore,
+        hovered: Option<(&str, Option<&str>)>,
+    ) -> RenderResult {
+        fill(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            theme.bar.background,
+        );
+        let logical_width = f64::from(physical_width) / f64::from(scale);
+        let logical_height = f64::from(physical_height) / f64::from(scale);
+        let groups = [
+            &config.layout.left,
+            &config.layout.center,
+            &config.layout.right,
+        ];
+        let mut measured = Vec::with_capacity(3);
+        for group in groups {
+            measured.push(self.measure_group(
+                group,
+                output,
+                logical_height,
+                scale,
+                config,
+                theme,
+                modules,
+                hovered,
+            ));
+        }
+
+        let left_width = group_width(&measured[0]);
+        let center_width = group_width(&measured[1]);
+        let right_width = group_width(&measured[2]);
+        position_group(&mut measured[0], 0.0, logical_height);
+        let right_start = (logical_width - right_width).max(left_width);
+        position_group(&mut measured[2], right_start, logical_height);
+        let centered = ((logical_width - center_width) / 2.0)
+            .max(left_width)
+            .min((right_start - center_width).max(left_width));
+        position_group(&mut measured[1], centered, logical_height);
+
+        let mut result = RenderResult::default();
+        for segment in measured.into_iter().flatten() {
+            self.draw_segment(
+                canvas,
+                physical_width,
+                physical_height,
+                scale,
+                &segment,
+                theme,
+            );
+            result.hit_boxes.push(HitBox {
+                rect: segment.rect,
+                module: segment.module,
+                segment: segment.segment,
+            });
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    pub fn popup_logical_size(
+        model: &PopupModel,
+        configured_width: u32,
+        maximum_height: u32,
+    ) -> (u32, u32) {
+        let content_height = match &model.content {
+            PopupContent::Rows(rows) => 42_u32.saturating_add(
+                u32::try_from(rows.len())
+                    .unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
+                    .saturating_mul(34),
+            ),
+            PopupContent::Calendar(_) => 42 + 7 * 30,
+            PopupContent::Slider(slider) => 42_u32.saturating_add(56).saturating_add(
+                u32::try_from(slider.detail_rows.len())
+                    .unwrap_or(u32::MAX)
+                    .saturating_mul(34),
+            ),
+            // Reserve the same viewport when switching between mixer and device lists.
+            PopupContent::Audio(_) => 420,
+        };
+        (configured_width, content_height.min(maximum_height).max(80))
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    pub fn render_popup(
+        &mut self,
+        canvas: &mut [u8],
+        physical_width: u32,
+        physical_height: u32,
+        scale: u32,
+        module: &str,
+        model: &PopupModel,
+        theme: &Theme,
+    ) -> RenderResult {
+        fill(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            theme.popup.background,
+        );
+        draw_border(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            (0, 0, physical_width, physical_height),
+            theme.popup.border,
+            theme.popup.border_width.saturating_mul(scale),
+        );
+        let logical_width = f64::from(physical_width) / f64::from(scale);
+        let logical_height = f64::from(physical_height) / f64::from(scale);
+        let padding = f64::from(theme.popup.padding);
+        let title_rect = Rect {
+            x: padding,
+            y: padding,
+            width: (logical_width - padding * 2.0).max(0.0),
+            height: 30.0,
+        };
+        self.draw_popup_text(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            scale,
+            module,
+            &model.title,
+            "focused",
+            title_rect,
+            theme,
+        );
+
+        let mut result = RenderResult::default();
+        let mut y = padding + 34.0;
+        match &model.content {
+            PopupContent::Audio(audio) => {
+                let controls = audio.controls();
+                let available = (logical_height - y - padding - 24.0).max(0.0);
+                let offset = audio.offset.min(controls.len().saturating_sub(1));
+                let mut used = 0.0;
+                let mut shown = 0;
+                for control in controls.iter().skip(offset) {
+                    let height = control.height();
+                    if used + height > available {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    let rect = Rect {
+                        x: padding,
+                        y: y + used,
+                        width: (logical_width - 2.0 * padding).max(1.0),
+                        height: height - 2.0,
+                    };
+                    let focused = control.id.is_some() && control.id == audio.focused;
+                    let state = if focused || control.active {
+                        "focused"
+                    } else {
+                        "normal"
+                    };
+                    self.draw_popup_text(
+                        canvas,
+                        physical_width,
+                        physical_height,
+                        scale,
+                        module,
+                        &control.label,
+                        state,
+                        Rect {
+                            height: 30.0,
+                            ..rect
+                        },
+                        theme,
+                    );
+                    if let Some(value) = control.slider {
+                        let track = Rect {
+                            x: rect.x + 8.0,
+                            y: rect.y + 38.0,
+                            width: (rect.width - 16.0).max(1.0),
+                            height: 6.0,
+                        };
+                        fill_rect(
+                            canvas,
+                            physical_width,
+                            physical_height,
+                            physical_rect(track, scale),
+                            theme.popup.border,
+                        );
+                        fill_rect(
+                            canvas,
+                            physical_width,
+                            physical_height,
+                            physical_rect(
+                                Rect {
+                                    width: track.width * (value / 150.0).clamp(0.0, 1.0),
+                                    ..track
+                                },
+                                scale,
+                            ),
+                            theme.module.foreground,
+                        );
+                    }
+                    if control.id.is_some() {
+                        result.hit_boxes.push(HitBox {
+                            rect,
+                            module: module.to_owned(),
+                            segment: control.id.clone(),
+                        });
+                    }
+                    used += height;
+                    shown += 1;
+                }
+                if offset > 0 || offset + shown < controls.len() {
+                    for (id, text, x, enabled) in [
+                        ("audio-scroll-up", "↑ Previous", padding, offset > 0),
+                        (
+                            "audio-scroll-down",
+                            "↓ More",
+                            logical_width / 2.0,
+                            offset + shown < controls.len(),
+                        ),
+                    ] {
+                        let rect = Rect {
+                            x,
+                            y: logical_height - padding - 24.0,
+                            width: (logical_width / 2.0 - padding).max(1.0),
+                            height: 24.0,
+                        };
+                        self.draw_popup_text(
+                            canvas,
+                            physical_width,
+                            physical_height,
+                            scale,
+                            module,
+                            text,
+                            if enabled { "normal" } else { "disabled" },
+                            rect,
+                            theme,
+                        );
+                        if enabled {
+                            result.hit_boxes.push(HitBox {
+                                rect,
+                                module: module.to_owned(),
+                                segment: Some(id.to_owned()),
+                            });
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            PopupContent::Rows(rows) => {
+                for row in rows {
+                    if y + 32.0 > logical_height - padding {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    let rect = Rect {
+                        x: padding,
+                        y,
+                        width: (logical_width - padding * 2.0).max(0.0),
+                        height: 32.0,
+                    };
+                    let text = row.detail.as_ref().map_or_else(
+                        || row.label.clone(),
+                        |detail| format!("{}  {}", row.label, detail),
+                    );
+                    self.draw_popup_text(
+                        canvas,
+                        physical_width,
+                        physical_height,
+                        scale,
+                        module,
+                        &text,
+                        if row.enabled { &row.state } else { "disabled" },
+                        rect,
+                        theme,
+                    );
+                    if row.enabled {
+                        result.hit_boxes.push(HitBox {
+                            rect,
+                            module: module.to_owned(),
+                            segment: row.id.clone(),
+                        });
+                    }
+                    y += 34.0;
+                }
+            }
+            PopupContent::Calendar(calendar) => {
+                let button_width = 32.0;
+                for (id, text, x) in [
+                    ("previous-month", "‹", padding),
+                    ("next-month", "›", logical_width - padding - button_width),
+                ] {
+                    let rect = Rect {
+                        x,
+                        y,
+                        width: button_width,
+                        height: 28.0,
+                    };
+                    self.draw_popup_text(
+                        canvas,
+                        physical_width,
+                        physical_height,
+                        scale,
+                        module,
+                        text,
+                        "normal",
+                        rect,
+                        theme,
+                    );
+                    result.hit_boxes.push(HitBox {
+                        rect,
+                        module: module.to_owned(),
+                        segment: Some(id.to_owned()),
+                    });
+                }
+                y += 30.0;
+                self.draw_calendar(
+                    canvas,
+                    physical_width,
+                    physical_height,
+                    scale,
+                    module,
+                    calendar,
+                    Rect {
+                        x: padding,
+                        y,
+                        width: logical_width - padding * 2.0,
+                        height: (logical_height - y - padding).max(0.0),
+                    },
+                    theme,
+                );
+            }
+            PopupContent::Slider(slider) => {
+                let rect = Rect {
+                    x: padding,
+                    y,
+                    width: logical_width - padding * 2.0,
+                    height: 52.0,
+                };
+                self.draw_popup_text(
+                    canvas,
+                    physical_width,
+                    physical_height,
+                    scale,
+                    module,
+                    &format!("{}  {:.0}%", slider.label, slider.value),
+                    if slider.muted { "disabled" } else { "normal" },
+                    Rect {
+                        height: 26.0,
+                        ..rect
+                    },
+                    theme,
+                );
+                let track = Rect {
+                    x: rect.x + 8.0,
+                    y: rect.y + 34.0,
+                    width: (rect.width - 16.0).max(1.0),
+                    height: 6.0,
+                };
+                fill_rect(
+                    canvas,
+                    physical_width,
+                    physical_height,
+                    physical_rect(track, scale),
+                    theme.module.border,
+                );
+                let ratio = ((slider.value - slider.minimum) / (slider.maximum - slider.minimum))
+                    .clamp(0.0, 1.0);
+                fill_rect(
+                    canvas,
+                    physical_width,
+                    physical_height,
+                    physical_rect(
+                        Rect {
+                            width: track.width * ratio,
+                            ..track
+                        },
+                        scale,
+                    ),
+                    theme
+                        .states
+                        .get("focused")
+                        .and_then(|style| style.background)
+                        .unwrap_or(theme.module.foreground),
+                );
+                result.hit_boxes.push(HitBox {
+                    rect,
+                    module: module.to_owned(),
+                    segment: Some("slider".to_owned()),
+                });
+                y += 56.0;
+                for row in &slider.detail_rows {
+                    if y + 32.0 > logical_height - padding {
+                        break;
+                    }
+                    let rect = Rect {
+                        x: padding,
+                        y,
+                        width: logical_width - padding * 2.0,
+                        height: 32.0,
+                    };
+                    self.draw_popup_text(
+                        canvas,
+                        physical_width,
+                        physical_height,
+                        scale,
+                        module,
+                        &row.label,
+                        if row.enabled { &row.state } else { "disabled" },
+                        rect,
+                        theme,
+                    );
+                    if row.enabled {
+                        result.hit_boxes.push(HitBox {
+                            rect,
+                            module: module.to_owned(),
+                            segment: row.id.clone(),
+                        });
+                    }
+                    y += 34.0;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        result
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn draw_popup_text(
+        &mut self,
+        canvas: &mut [u8],
+        physical_width: u32,
+        physical_height: u32,
+        scale: u32,
+        module: &str,
+        text: &str,
+        state: &str,
+        rect: Rect,
+        theme: &Theme,
+    ) {
+        let style = theme.style_for(module, state, &crate::config::StyleOverride::default());
+        self.draw_segment(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            scale,
+            &RenderSegment {
+                module: module.to_owned(),
+                segment: None,
+                text: text.to_owned(),
+                icon: None,
+                style,
+                rect,
+            },
+            theme,
+        );
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn draw_calendar(
+        &mut self,
+        canvas: &mut [u8],
+        physical_width: u32,
+        physical_height: u32,
+        scale: u32,
+        module: &str,
+        calendar: &crate::model::CalendarModel,
+        rect: Rect,
+        theme: &Theme,
+    ) {
+        use chrono::{Datelike, NaiveDate};
+
+        let cell_width = rect.width / 7.0;
+        let cell_height = 28.0;
+        for (column, label) in ["Mo", "Tu", "We", "Th", "Fr", "Sa", "Su"]
+            .into_iter()
+            .enumerate()
+        {
+            self.draw_popup_text(
+                canvas,
+                physical_width,
+                physical_height,
+                scale,
+                module,
+                label,
+                "disabled",
+                Rect {
+                    x: rect.x + column as f64 * cell_width,
+                    y: rect.y,
+                    width: cell_width,
+                    height: cell_height,
+                },
+                theme,
+            );
+        }
+        let Some(first) = NaiveDate::from_ymd_opt(calendar.year, calendar.month, 1) else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let next = if calendar.month == 12 {
+            NaiveDate::from_ymd_opt(calendar.year + 1, 1, 1)
+        } else {
+            NaiveDate::from_ymd_opt(calendar.year, calendar.month + 1, 1)
+        };
+        let Some(next) = next else {
+            return;
+        };
+        let days = (next - first).num_days() as u32;
+        let offset = first.weekday().num_days_from_monday();
+        for day in 1..=days {
+            let index = offset + day - 1;
+            let column = index % 7;
+            let row = index / 7 + 1;
+            self.draw_popup_text(
+                canvas,
+                physical_width,
+                physical_height,
+                scale,
+                module,
+                &day.to_string(),
+                if day == calendar.selected_day {
+                    "focused"
+                } else {
+                    "normal"
+                },
+                Rect {
+                    x: rect.x + f64::from(column) * cell_width,
+                    y: rect.y + f64::from(row) * cell_height,
+                    width: cell_width,
+                    height: cell_height,
+                },
+                theme,
+            );
+        }
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn measure_group(
+        &mut self,
+        names: &[String],
+        output: &str,
+        logical_height: f64,
+        scale: u32,
+        config: &Config,
+        theme: &Theme,
+        modules: &ModuleStore,
+        hovered: Option<(&str, Option<&str>)>,
+    ) -> Vec<RenderSegment> {
+        let mut segments = Vec::new();
+        for name in names {
+            let Some(definition) = config.modules.get(name) else {
+                continue;
+            };
+            if !definition.common().enabled {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let snapshot = modules
+                .get(name)
+                .cloned()
+                .unwrap_or_default()
+                .for_output(output);
+            if !snapshot.visible {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let mut style = definition.common().style.clone();
+            if let ModuleConfig::Tray(tray) = definition {
+                style.padding_x.get_or_insert(tray.spacing / 2);
+            }
+            self.measure_module(
+                name,
+                style,
+                snapshot,
+                logical_height,
+                scale,
+                theme,
+                hovered,
+                &mut segments,
+            );
+        }
+        segments
+    }
+
+    #[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+    fn measure_module(
+        &mut self,
+        name: &str,
+        local_style: crate::config::StyleOverride,
+        snapshot: ModuleSnapshot,
+        logical_height: f64,
+        scale: u32,
+        theme: &Theme,
+        hovered: Option<(&str, Option<&str>)>,
+        result: &mut Vec<RenderSegment>,
+    ) {
+        for segment in snapshot.segments {
+            let state = if snapshot.stale {
+                "stale"
+            } else if hovered
+                .is_some_and(|(module, id)| module == name && id == segment.id.as_deref())
+            {
+                "hover"
+            } else {
+                &segment.state
+            };
+            let style = theme.style_for(name, state, &local_style);
+            let text_width = self.measure_text(&segment.text, logical_height, scale, theme);
+            let icon_width = segment.icon.as_ref().map_or(0.0, |icon| {
+                let maximum = (logical_height - 4.0).max(1.0);
+                let ratio = f64::from(icon.width) / f64::from(icon.height.max(1));
+                (maximum * ratio).min(maximum * 2.0)
+                    + if segment.text.is_empty() { 0.0 } else { 4.0 }
+            });
+            let width = (text_width
+                + icon_width
+                + f64::from(style.padding_x.saturating_mul(2))
+                + f64::from(style.border_width.saturating_mul(2)))
+            .max(f64::from(style.min_width));
+            result.push(RenderSegment {
+                module: name.to_owned(),
+                segment: segment.id,
+                text: segment.text,
+                icon: segment.icon,
+                style,
+                rect: Rect {
+                    x: 0.0,
+                    y: 0.0,
+                    width,
+                    height: logical_height,
+                },
+            });
+        }
+    }
+
+    fn measure_text(&mut self, text: &str, logical_height: f64, scale: u32, theme: &Theme) -> f64 {
+        let key = TextWidthKey {
+            text: text.to_owned(),
+            logical_height_bits: logical_height.to_bits(),
+            scale,
+            font_family: theme.font.family.clone(),
+            font_size_bits: theme.font.size.to_bits(),
+        };
+        if let Some((_, width)) = self
+            .text_width_cache
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(candidate, _)| candidate == &key)
+        {
+            return *width;
+        }
+        let scale = scale as f32;
+        let line_height = logical_height as f32 * scale;
+        let metrics = Metrics::new(theme.font.size * scale, line_height);
+        let attrs = Attrs::new().family(Family::Name(&theme.font.family));
+        let mut buffer = Buffer::new(&mut self.font_system, metrics);
+        buffer.set_size(None, Some(line_height));
+        buffer.set_text(text, &attrs, Shaping::Advanced, None);
+        let width = buffer
+            .borrow_with(&mut self.font_system)
+            .layout_runs()
+            .map(|run| run.line_w)
+            .fold(0.0_f32, f32::max);
+        let width = f64::from(width.ceil()) / f64::from(scale);
+        push_bounded(&mut self.text_width_cache, (key, width), 256);
+        width
+    }
+
+    fn draw_segment(
+        &mut self,
+        canvas: &mut [u8],
+        physical_width: u32,
+        physical_height: u32,
+        scale: u32,
+        segment: &RenderSegment,
+        theme: &Theme,
+    ) {
+        let rect = physical_rect(segment.rect, scale);
+        if rect.2 == 0 || rect.3 == 0 {
+            return;
+        }
+        let key = SegmentCacheKey {
+            width: rect.2,
+            height: rect.3,
+            scale,
+            text: segment.text.clone(),
+            icon: segment.icon.clone(),
+            style: segment.style.clone(),
+            font_family: theme.font.family.clone(),
+            font_size_bits: theme.font.size.to_bits(),
+        };
+        if let Some((_, pixels)) = self
+            .segment_cache
+            .iter()
+            .find(|(candidate, _)| candidate == &key)
+        {
+            composite_surface(
+                canvas,
+                physical_width,
+                physical_height,
+                rect.0,
+                rect.1,
+                rect.2,
+                rect.3,
+                pixels,
+            );
+            return;
+        }
+
+        let mut pixels = vec![0_u8; rect.2 as usize * rect.3 as usize * 4];
+        let mut local = segment.clone();
+        local.rect.x = 0.0;
+        local.rect.y = 0.0;
+        self.draw_segment_uncached(&mut pixels, rect.2, rect.3, scale, &local, theme);
+        composite_surface(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            rect.0,
+            rect.1,
+            rect.2,
+            rect.3,
+            &pixels,
+        );
+        push_bounded(&mut self.segment_cache, (key, pixels), 128);
+    }
+
+    fn draw_segment_uncached(
+        &mut self,
+        canvas: &mut [u8],
+        physical_width: u32,
+        physical_height: u32,
+        scale: u32,
+        segment: &RenderSegment,
+        theme: &Theme,
+    ) {
+        let rect = physical_rect(segment.rect, scale);
+        fill_rect(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            rect,
+            segment.style.background,
+        );
+        draw_border(
+            canvas,
+            physical_width,
+            physical_height,
+            rect,
+            segment.style.border,
+            segment.style.border_width.saturating_mul(scale),
+        );
+
+        let inset = (segment.style.padding_x + segment.style.border_width).saturating_mul(scale);
+        let mut text_x = rect.0.saturating_add(inset);
+        if let Some(icon) = &segment.icon {
+            let target_height = rect.3.saturating_sub(4_u32.saturating_mul(scale)).max(1);
+            let target_width = ((u64::from(target_height) * u64::from(icon.width))
+                / u64::from(icon.height.max(1)))
+            .min(u64::from(target_height) * 2) as u32;
+            let icon_y = rect
+                .1
+                .saturating_add((rect.3.saturating_sub(target_height)) / 2);
+            draw_pixmap(
+                canvas,
+                physical_width,
+                physical_height,
+                text_x,
+                icon_y,
+                target_width.max(1),
+                target_height,
+                icon,
+            );
+            text_x =
+                text_x
+                    .saturating_add(target_width)
+                    .saturating_add(if segment.text.is_empty() {
+                        0
+                    } else {
+                        4 * scale
+                    });
+        }
+        let line_height = segment.rect.height as f32 * scale as f32;
+        let metrics = Metrics::new(theme.font.size * scale as f32, line_height);
+        let attrs = Attrs::new().family(Family::Name(&theme.font.family));
+        let mut buffer = Buffer::new(&mut self.font_system, metrics);
+        buffer.set_size(
+            Some((rect.2.saturating_sub(inset.saturating_mul(2))) as f32),
+            Some(line_height),
+        );
+        buffer.set_text(&segment.text, &attrs, Shaping::Advanced, None);
+        let color = Color::rgba(
+            segment.style.foreground.red,
+            segment.style.foreground.green,
+            segment.style.foreground.blue,
+            segment.style.foreground.alpha,
+        );
+        let mut borrowed = buffer.borrow_with(&mut self.font_system);
+        borrowed.draw(
+            &mut self.swash_cache,
+            color,
+            |x, y, width, height, glyph| {
+                let origin_x = i64::from(text_x) + i64::from(x);
+                let origin_y = i64::from(rect.1) + i64::from(y);
+                blend_glyph(
+                    canvas,
+                    physical_width,
+                    physical_height,
+                    origin_x,
+                    origin_y,
+                    width,
+                    height,
+                    glyph,
+                );
+            },
+        );
+    }
+}
+
+fn push_bounded<T>(cache: &mut VecDeque<T>, value: T, maximum: usize) {
+    if cache.len() == maximum {
+        cache.pop_front();
+    }
+    cache.push_back(value);
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn composite_surface(
+    canvas: &mut [u8],
+    canvas_width: u32,
+    canvas_height: u32,
+    target_x: u32,
+    target_y: u32,
+    source_width: u32,
+    source_height: u32,
+    source: &[u8],
+) {
+    if source.len() != source_width as usize * source_height as usize * 4 {
+        return;
+    }
+    for row in 0..source_height {
+        let y = target_y.saturating_add(row);
+        if y >= canvas_height {
+            break;
+        }
+        for column in 0..source_width {
+            let x = target_x.saturating_add(column);
+            if x >= canvas_width {
+                break;
+            }
+            let source_index = ((row as usize * source_width as usize) + column as usize) * 4;
+            let destination_index = ((y as usize * canvas_width as usize) + x as usize) * 4;
+            if let (Some(pixel), Some(destination)) = (
+                source.get(source_index..source_index + 4),
+                canvas.get_mut(destination_index..destination_index + 4),
+            ) && pixel[3] != 0
+            {
+                blend_pixel(destination, [pixel[0], pixel[1], pixel[2], pixel[3]]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn group_width(group: &[RenderSegment]) -> f64 {
+    group
+        .iter()
+        .map(|segment| segment.rect.width + f64::from(segment.style.margin_x.saturating_mul(2)))
+        .sum()
+}
+
+fn position_group(group: &mut [RenderSegment], mut x: f64, height: f64) {
+    for segment in group {
+        x += f64::from(segment.style.margin_x);
+        segment.rect.x = x;
+        segment.rect.y = 0.0;
+        segment.rect.height = height;
+        x += segment.rect.width + f64::from(segment.style.margin_x);
+    }
+}
+
+fn physical_rect(rect: Rect, scale: u32) -> (u32, u32, u32, u32) {
+    let scale = f64::from(scale);
+    (
+        (rect.x * scale).max(0.0).round() as u32,
+        (rect.y * scale).max(0.0).round() as u32,
+        (rect.width * scale).max(0.0).round() as u32,
+        (rect.height * scale).max(0.0).round() as u32,
+    )
+}
+
+fn fill(canvas: &mut [u8], width: u32, height: u32, color: Rgba) {
+    fill_rect(canvas, width, height, (0, 0, width, height), color);
+}
+
+fn fill_rect(
+    canvas: &mut [u8],
+    canvas_width: u32,
+    canvas_height: u32,
+    rect: (u32, u32, u32, u32),
+    color: Rgba,
+) {
+    let (x, y, width, height) = rect;
+    let x_end = x.saturating_add(width).min(canvas_width);
+    let y_end = y.saturating_add(height).min(canvas_height);
+    let source = color.as_premultiplied_bgra();
+    for row in y.min(canvas_height)..y_end {
+        for column in x.min(canvas_width)..x_end {
+            let index = ((row as usize * canvas_width as usize) + column as usize) * 4;
+            if let Some(pixel) = canvas.get_mut(index..index + 4) {
+                blend_pixel(pixel, source);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn draw_border(
+    canvas: &mut [u8],
+    canvas_width: u32,
+    canvas_height: u32,
+    rect: (u32, u32, u32, u32),
+    color: Rgba,
+    width: u32,
+) {
+    if width == 0 || rect.2 == 0 || rect.3 == 0 {
+        return;
+    }
+    let width = width.min(rect.2 / 2).min(rect.3 / 2);
+    fill_rect(
+        canvas,
+        canvas_width,
+        canvas_height,
+        (rect.0, rect.1, rect.2, width),
+        color,
+    );
+    fill_rect(
+        canvas,
+        canvas_width,
+        canvas_height,
+        (rect.0, rect.1 + rect.3 - width, rect.2, width),
+        color,
+    );
+    fill_rect(
+        canvas,
+        canvas_width,
+        canvas_height,
+        (rect.0, rect.1, width, rect.3),
+        color,
+    );
+    fill_rect(
+        canvas,
+        canvas_width,
+        canvas_height,
+        (rect.0 + rect.2 - width, rect.1, width, rect.3),
+        color,
+    );
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn blend_glyph(
+    canvas: &mut [u8],
+    canvas_width: u32,
+    canvas_height: u32,
+    origin_x: i64,
+    origin_y: i64,
+    width: u32,
+    height: u32,
+    color: Color,
+) {
+    if origin_x >= i64::from(canvas_width) || origin_y >= i64::from(canvas_height) {
+        return;
+    }
+    let source = Rgba::rgba(color.r(), color.g(), color.b(), color.a()).as_premultiplied_bgra();
+    for dy in 0..height {
+        let y = origin_y + i64::from(dy);
+        if !(0..i64::from(canvas_height)).contains(&y) {
+            continue;
+        }
+        for dx in 0..width {
+            let x = origin_x + i64::from(dx);
+            if !(0..i64::from(canvas_width)).contains(&x) {
+                continue;
+            }
+            let index = ((y as usize * canvas_width as usize) + x as usize) * 4;
+            if let Some(pixel) = canvas.get_mut(index..index + 4) {
+                blend_pixel(pixel, source);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn blend_pixel(destination: &mut [u8], source: [u8; 4]) {
+    let inverse = 255_u16.saturating_sub(u16::from(source[3]));
+    for channel in 0..3 {
+        destination[channel] = u8::try_from(
+            u16::from(source[channel]) + (u16::from(destination[channel]) * inverse + 127) / 255,
+        )
+        .unwrap_or(u8::MAX);
+    }
+    destination[3] =
+        u8::try_from(u16::from(source[3]) + (u16::from(destination[3]) * inverse + 127) / 255)
+            .unwrap_or(u8::MAX);
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn draw_pixmap(
+    canvas: &mut [u8],
+    canvas_width: u32,
+    canvas_height: u32,
+    target_x: u32,
+    target_y: u32,
+    target_width: u32,
+    target_height: u32,
+    pixmap: &IconPixmap,
+) {
+    if pixmap.width == 0
+        || pixmap.height == 0
+        || pixmap.pixels.len() != pixmap.width as usize * pixmap.height as usize * 4
+    {
+        return;
+    }
+    for dy in 0..target_height {
+        let y = target_y.saturating_add(dy);
+        if y >= canvas_height {
+            break;
+        }
+        let source_y =
+            (u64::from(dy) * u64::from(pixmap.height) / u64::from(target_height.max(1))) as u32;
+        for dx in 0..target_width {
+            let x = target_x.saturating_add(dx);
+            if x >= canvas_width {
+                break;
+            }
+            let source_x =
+                (u64::from(dx) * u64::from(pixmap.width) / u64::from(target_width.max(1))) as u32;
+            let source_index =
+                ((source_y as usize * pixmap.width as usize) + source_x as usize) * 4;
+            let destination_index = ((y as usize * canvas_width as usize) + x as usize) * 4;
+            if let (Some(source), Some(destination)) = (
+                pixmap.pixels.get(source_index..source_index + 4),
+                canvas.get_mut(destination_index..destination_index + 4),
+            ) {
+                blend_pixel(destination, [source[0], source[1], source[2], source[3]]);
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn hit_test(hit_boxes: &[HitBox], x: f64, y: f64) -> Option<&HitBox> {
+    hit_boxes
+        .iter()
+        .rev()
+        .find(|hit_box| hit_box.rect.contains(x, y))
+}
+
+pub fn snapshots_for_test(values: &[(&str, &str)]) -> ModuleStore {
+    let mut store = ModuleStore::default();
+    for (name, text) in values {
+        store.insert(*name, ModuleSnapshot::text(*text));
+    }
+    store
+}
+
+pub fn state_counts(store: &ModuleStore, names: &[String]) -> BTreeMap<String, usize> {
+    names
+        .iter()
+        .map(|name| {
+            let count = store
+                .get(name)
+                .map_or(0, |snapshot| snapshot.segments.len());
+            (name.clone(), count)
+        })
+        .collect()
+}
+
+#[cfg(test)]
+mod tests {
+    use super::*;
+
+    #[test]
+    fn hit_testing_prefers_last_overlapping_box() {
+        let boxes = vec![
+            HitBox {
+                rect: Rect {
+                    x: 0.0,
+                    y: 0.0,
+                    width: 20.0,
+                    height: 20.0,
+                },
+                module: "first".to_owned(),
+                segment: None,
+            },
+            HitBox {
+                rect: Rect {
+                    x: 10.0,
+                    y: 0.0,
+                    width: 20.0,
+                    height: 20.0,
+                },
+                module: "second".to_owned(),
+                segment: None,
+            },
+        ];
+        assert_eq!(hit_test(&boxes, 15.0, 5.0).unwrap().module, "second");
+        assert!(hit_test(&boxes, 50.0, 5.0).is_none());
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn alpha_blend_is_premultiplied() {
+        let mut destination = [0_u8, 0, 0, 0];
+        blend_pixel(
+            &mut destination,
+            Rgba::rgba(255, 0, 0, 128).as_premultiplied_bgra(),
+        );
+        assert_eq!(destination, [0, 0, 128, 128]);
+    }
+}
diff --git a/tests/audio_popup.rs b/tests/audio_popup.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..accffc8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/audio_popup.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+use lightbar::{
+    config::ConfigBundle,
+    model::{AudioDevice, AudioModel, AudioView, PopupContent, PopupModel},
+    render::{Renderer, hit_test},
+};
+
+fn mixer() -> AudioModel {
+    AudioModel {
+        devices: vec![
+            AudioDevice {
+                id: 10,
+                name: "speakers".into(),
+                description: "Desktop Speakers".into(),
+                input: false,
+                is_default: true,
+                volume: Some(50.0),
+                muted: Some(false),
+            },
+            AudioDevice {
+                id: 11,
+                name: "microphone".into(),
+                description: "USB Microphone".into(),
+                input: true,
+                is_default: true,
+                volume: Some(80.0),
+                muted: Some(true),
+            },
+        ],
+        ..AudioModel::default()
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn example_popup_exposes_both_endpoints_and_keyboard_focus() {
+    let bundle = ConfigBundle::load(Some(std::path::Path::new("examples/config.toml"))).unwrap();
+    let mut renderer = Renderer::default();
+    for scale in [1, 2] {
+        let mut audio = mixer();
+        let mut visited = Vec::new();
+        for _ in 0..7 {
+            audio.move_focus(
+                false,
+                420.0 - 2.0 * f64::from(bundle.theme.popup.padding) - 58.0,
+            );
+            let popup = PopupModel {
+                title: "Audio".into(),
+                content: PopupContent::Audio(audio.clone()),
+            };
+            let mut pixels = vec![0; (320 * 420 * scale * scale * 4) as usize];
+            let result = renderer.render_popup(
+                &mut pixels,
+                320 * scale,
+                420 * scale,
+                scale,
+                "audio",
+                &popup,
+                &bundle.theme,
+            );
+            let focused = result
+                .hit_boxes
+                .iter()
+                .find(|hit| hit.segment == audio.focused)
+                .expect("keyboard focus must be visible and actionable");
+            assert_eq!(
+                hit_test(
+                    &result.hit_boxes,
+                    focused.rect.x + 1.0,
+                    focused.rect.y + 1.0
+                ),
+                Some(focused)
+            );
+            visited.push(audio.focused.clone().unwrap());
+        }
+        assert_eq!(
+            visited,
+            [
+                "audio-outputs",
+                "audio-volume:10",
+                "audio-mute:10",
+                "audio-inputs",
+                "audio-volume:11",
+                "audio-mute:11",
+                "open-settings"
+            ]
+        );
+        audio.move_focus(false, 342.0);
+        assert_eq!(audio.focused.as_deref(), Some("audio-outputs"));
+        audio.move_focus(true, 342.0);
+        assert_eq!(audio.focused.as_deref(), Some("open-settings"));
+    }
+}
+
+#[test]
+fn keyboard_reaches_every_device_in_a_short_popup() {
+    let bundle = ConfigBundle::load(Some(std::path::Path::new("examples/config.toml"))).unwrap();
+    let mut audio = mixer();
+    for id in 20..40 {
+        audio.devices.push(AudioDevice {
+            id,
+            name: format!("output-{id}"),
+            description: format!("Output {id}"),
+            input: false,
+            is_default: false,
+            volume: Some(100.0),
+            muted: Some(false),
+        });
+    }
+    audio.set_view(AudioView::Outputs);
+    let mut renderer = Renderer::default();
+    for _ in 0..22 {
+        audio.move_focus(
+            false,
+            180.0 - 2.0 * f64::from(bundle.theme.popup.padding) - 58.0,
+        );
+        let mut pixels = vec![0; 320 * 180 * 4];
+        let popup = PopupModel {
+            title: "Audio".into(),
+            content: PopupContent::Audio(audio.clone()),
+        };
+        let result =
+            renderer.render_popup(&mut pixels, 320, 180, 1, "audio", &popup, &bundle.theme);
+        assert!(
+            result
+                .hit_boxes
+                .iter()
+                .any(|hit| hit.segment == audio.focused)
+        );
+    }
+    assert_eq!(audio.focused.as_deref(), Some("audio-default:39"));
+    assert!(audio.offset > 0);
+    audio.set_view(AudioView::Inputs);
+    let ids: Vec<_> = audio
+        .controls()
+        .into_iter()
+        .filter_map(|control| control.id)
+        .collect();
+    assert_eq!(ids, ["audio-back", "audio-default:11"]);
+}
diff --git a/tests/fixtures/audio.json b/tests/fixtures/audio.json
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1505d73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/fixtures/audio.json
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+[
+  {"id":1,"type":"PipeWire:Interface:Metadata","props":{"metadata.name":"default"},"metadata":[
+    {"subject":0,"key":"default.configured.audio.sink","value":{"name":"disconnected-headset"}},
+    {"subject":0,"key":"default.audio.sink","value":{"name":"speakers"}},
+    {"subject":0,"key":"default.audio.source","value":{"name":"microphone"}}
+  ]},
+  {"id":10,"type":"PipeWire:Interface:Node","info":{"props":{"media.class":"Audio/Sink","node.name":"speakers","node.description":"Desktop Speakers","device.id":30,"card.profile.device":0},"params":{"Props":[{"mute":false,"channelVolumes":[1.0,1.0]}]}}},
+  {"id":11,"type":"PipeWire:Interface:Node","info":{"props":{"media.class":"Audio/Source","node.name":"microphone","node.description":"USB Microphone"},"params":{"Props":[{"mute":true,"channelVolumes":[0.512]}]}}},
+  {"id":12,"type":"PipeWire:Interface:Node","info":{"props":{"media.class":"Audio/Sink","node.name":"headphones","node.description":"USB Headphones"},"params":{"Props":[{"mute":false,"channelVolumes":[1.0,1.0]}]}}},
+  {"id":30,"type":"PipeWire:Interface:Device","info":{"props":{"media.class":"Audio/Device"},"params":{"Route":[{"device":0,"props":{"mute":false,"channelVolumes":[0.125,0.125]}}]}}},
+  {"id":40,"type":"PipeWire:Interface:Node","info":{"props":{"media.class":"Stream/Output/Audio","node.name":"music"},"params":{"Props":[{"mute":false,"channelVolumes":[1.0,1.0]}]}}}
+]